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Articles were now prepared by the Japanese Government as the basis of understanding. The essential features

were:

1. A mutual engagement to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Chinese and Korean empires, and to maintain the "open door" in these countries, and 2, a reciprocal recognition of Japan's preponderating interests in Korea and of Russia's special interests in Manchuria.

Russia's reply after eight weeks was substantially as follows:

1. The mutual engagement to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Korean Empire.

2. Recognition by Russia of Japan's preponderating interest in Korea.

3. Recognition of the right of Japan to send troops to Korea.

4. Mutual engagement to consider that part of the ter

frontiers join those of Manchuria, when she has been forced by recent events to send her troops into this province to reestablish order in the evident and common interest of all nations? It is true that Russia has conquered Manchuria, but she maintains her firm determination to restore it to China and to recall her troops as soon as the necessary measures are taken to avoid an outbreak of trouble in the neighboring territories. It is impossible to deny that an independent state has the right to accord to others such concessions, and I have some reason to believe that the demands of the Russo-Chinese Bank do not exceedthose which have been so often formulated by other foreign Societies. I judge that, in these circumstances, it would not be easy for the imperial government to refuse to Russian societies that which is given by other governments to Societies and syndicates of their own nationality."-M. Rey, in Causes of Russo-Japanese War in Revue General De Droit International Public, XII, 267.

"Russia was not disposed to abandon Manchuria and it was manifest that she was seeking only pretexts for putting off the date of evacuation."-Rey, p. 276.

La Russe h'a pas le droit d'abandonner ses interests en Manchourie et ne peut sortir de la voie qu'elle s'est trac'ee. Elle ne pourra retirer ses troupes de Manchourie que lorsqu elle sera convaincue qu'il n'existe plus de danger pour ses possessions et commencera le peuplement de la zone de son cheinen de fer guand elle le jugera a propor.-Rey, p. 276, French translation of one of the many official Russian statements on this affair.

ritory of Korea lying to the north of the thirty-ninth parallel as a neutral zone into which neither of the contracting parties shall introduce troops.

5. Recognition by Japan of Manchuria and its littoral as in all respects outside her sphere of interests.

In the meantime, Russia's aggression, both in Manchuria and Korea, was increasing daily.

The Boxer uprising in China in 1900 "added fresh causes of quarrel to those already in existence." The Chinese authorities in Manchuria attacked the "foreign" Russian officials and settlers there. In a very short time the whole province was in Russian military occupation.

"It will thus be seen that in these counter-proposals Russia not only reduced Japan's demands regarding Korea, but imposed new conditions upon Japan in that country. Butmost significant of all-she quietly ignored the most important part of Article I of the Japanese proposals, viz., that part which stipulated for a mutual agreement to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Chinese Empire and to maintain the 'open door' in China and Korea," 16 .. "if not indeed to preserve her status as an independent state for the future.

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"It became to her as clear as daylight that the new position she had acquired in the Orient by her victory over China could be maintained and even her independence must be guarded only by an armament powerful enough to give her a voice among the first powers of the world."17

Russia's methods were practically without scruple. Neither the Russian Court nor the officials and army in Manchuria and Korea could be relied on for the fulfillment of their promises to China, Japan, Korea or any of the European nations. She withdrew her troops from the southwest of Mukden province by October 8, 1902. On the date set for 10 Hershey, International Law and Diplomacy of Russo-Japanese War, p. 56. "Idem, p. 9. Quoted from Asakana's "The Russo-Jap. Conflict,” pp. 79-80.

her withdrawal from the remainder of the province, however, April 8, 1903, she was still in full occupancy and it was evident that not even a nominal withdrawal was intended."18

Russia's persistent failure in the face of repeated promises to withdraw her troops from China after the Boxer uprising led directly, we may say, to the outbreak of hostilities with Japan.19

“The inspiring force which moved some 40,000 men gladly to lay down their lives on the hills around Port Arthur was the feeling that they were helping to hurl back in the face of Russia, the gauntlet which she had there so insolently flung down as to an inferior race.

9920

Russia's demands of China in 1903, among other things, included the closing of Manchuria against the economic enterprises of all foreigners except Russians and the opening of no new treaty-ports without Russia's consent.21

The final year of negotiation (1904) had come. After three successive overtures of the Japanese government to Russia, the views of the two governments were apparently as irreconcilable as ever. Japan made still a fourth attempt to obtain a favorable reply from Russia, and its provisions were as follows:

1. Suppression of the clause (in Article 5) requiring Japan not to use any part of Korea for strategical purposes.

2. Suppression of the whole Article (6) concerning the establishment of a neutral zone.

3. Recognition by Japan of Manchuria and its littoral as being outside her sphere of interest, provided that Russia will engage (a) to respect the territorial integrity of China and Manchuria, (b) to recognize the treaty rights, including those of the settlement of Japan and other Powers 18 Hershey, Int. Law & Dip. of Russo-Jap. War, pp. 33-4.

19 See Rose, pp. 318-19.

20 Rose, p. 319.

* Idem, p. 35.

in Manchuria, (c) to recognize Korea and its littoral as being outside her sphere of interest.

4. Recognition by Japan of Russia's special interests in Manchuria, and of the right of Russia to take measures necessary for the protection of those interests.

The Russian reply to this last proposal of Japan was not returned until Feb. 7, 1904, the day after diplomatic relations between the two countries had ceased. Thus we see that Russia's persistent delay in withdrawing her troops from Chinese territory in the year after the Boxer uprising led to the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war.

Japan "had expended much blood and treasure in order to secure a predominating interest in the Korean peninsula. . . . The rapid growth of Russian power in the Pacific coasts, the enforced cession of Saghalien in 1875, and of the Liaotung Peninsula with the hard-won Port Arthur 20 years later, had aroused profound distrust of Russian policies in the minds of Japanese statesmen." 22

Without attempting to give all the factors that bore upon the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Japan, we may reduce the fundamental causes of the war to two, viz.: (1) Russia's determination to secure if possible, an ice-free port on the Pacific, with Russian control of Manchuria and Korea-mainly a political interest; (2) Japan's equal determination that this should not be accomplished-mainly an economic interest and question of ultimate self-preservation.

C. M. Hist., XII, p. 577.

CHAPTER X

CAUSES OF THE BRITISH-BOER WAR

THE

HE American press and people in general have been inclined to lay the blame of this war almost entirely on the British.1 They have done this more or less blindly,

1

1 British occupation of South Africa began in 1806, when Cape Town was surrendered to the English. In the London Convention of 1814, the Dutch surrendered to the English Crown their claims to Cape Colony and some other adjacent territory, for a consideration of £6,000,000 sterling. British immigration to South Africa began about the year 1819. In 1825 an Executive Council was appointed to assist the Governor of the colony. In 1828 the Hottentots received equal rights in the law (courts) with the Europeans. In the years 1833-5 the abolition of slavery was accomplished. This was accompanied by disturbances that assumed serious proportions. Discontent with the British rule had not been wholly lacking before; as a result of the liberties given them in 1828, the Hottentots had broken loose from several restraints imposed upon them formerly, by the English administration; there had been considerable friction before the Dutch were ready to surrender Cape Colony, in 1814; but these were as nothing compared with the storm that arose in 1834. "The great wrong which stirred the Dutch to the depths was the abolition of slavery by Great Britain in 1834." Green: "Causes of South African War," p. 5. And Doyle, who has written perhaps the best account of the causes and events leading up to the final war, says: "The emancipation of slaves in 1834 fanned the smouldering discontents into a flame." Doyle: "The War in South Africa," p. 5.

There were two reasons for this outburst, (1) A very inadequate sum was appropriated for the slave-owners in return for the loss of their slaves. (2) The money was paid over in London, and because of this fact, the colonists received but little of it. This worked a real hardship to the Boer farmers. It meant beggary to a number of them. The war of 1834-5, waged by the British against the Kaffirs, was very unjust to the latter, and they were almost immediately restored to their former homes. Many of the Boer farmers now determined to leave the colony, and migrate farther inland, away from the domination of the British. The first trek was in 1836. The long journey, with its perils and hardships, broke up all local self-government and the science of cooking, etc., and put these Boers back into their medieval ancestral type of government and individual liberty. This backward step in civilization is no small factor in explaining the failure of the British to conciliate the Boers, and the gradual growth of a hostile spirit that was to culminate in war of the two races.

In 1848 Sir Harry Smith was sent out as Governor of the Colony. He

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