CHLADNI-CHOIR CHLADNI, ERNST, a German physicist; born in Wittenberg, Nov. 30, 1756; died in Breslau, April 4, 1827; the inventor of the Euphon and Clavicylinder, and the author of Discoveries on the Theory of Sound (1787), and of Acoustics (1802). In order to illustrate his discoveries he invented figures (named after him), which form themselves on a plate of glass or metal, sprinkled over with sand, when its rim is struck with a violin bow. CHLANDNI'S FIGURES. Vol. I, p. 105. CHLAMYDOSAURUS. XIV, p. 743. G.A.S. CHLAMYS. See COSTUME, Vol. VI, p. 403. CHLORANTHACEAE, a small group of aromatic and stimulant plants, chiefly tropical, allied to the peppers. Chloranthus inconspicuus is the chu-lan of the Chinese, who use it for perfuming teas. JOSEPH H. CHOATE. 161 and scarcely would the daughter of a small farmer | liant talents immediately won high rank in the or well-to-do day-laborer become the wife of one profession, and in 1871 became known to the of them, so that they mostly marry among them- entire country by his selves. From time immemorial they have been vigorous and successful field-laborers, cattle-dealers, butchers, and the campaign against the like. Tweed ring in the New York City government. His forensic triumphs as counsel for General Fitz-John Porter and in other weighty causes brought him fame as the foremost of American advocates. He was president of the New England Club in New York, and of the New York constitutional convention in 1893 and was chiefly instrumental in overthrowAURU See LIZARD, Vol. ing the income tax by an argument before the supreme court of the United States. In January, 1899, he was appointed ambassador to Britain. CHOATE, RUFUS, an American lawyer; born in Essex, Mass.. Oct. 1, 1799. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1819, remained there as tutor for a year, and then studied law at Cambridge, Mass. commenced practice at Danvers, Mass., in 1824, but removed to Salem in 1828, became a member of the State House of Representatives in 1825, and State senator in 1826. He sat in the national House of Representatives from 1831 to 1834, in which latter year he removed to Boston and became celebrated as one of the leaders of the Massachusetts bar. In February, 1841, he was chosen to fill the place in the United CHLORINATION PROCESS. See GOLD AND States Senate vacated by Daniel Webster, who GOLD MINING, in these Supplements. then became Secretary of State in Pres. Harrison's CHLORITE, an abundant mineral occurring Cabinet. He served until 1845, but declined a now and again crystallized in minute hexagonal re-election. During the period of his senatorship, plates, or in aggregates of small leaflets, either however, he took frequent part in debate, and singly or disposed in radial groups, which are made brilliant and elaborate speeches upon the scattered over the joint surfaces of certain schis-leading questions of the day,- such as the Oregon tose rocks, or may occur in a thin incrustation question, the tariff, etc., many of which were upon other minerals. It is rather soft, and is published in pamphlet form. easily broken or scratched with a knife. He was attorneySee general of Massachusetts from 1853 to 1859. His MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 431. eloquence was undoubted, but was noted for its CHLOROPHANE. See FLUOR SPAR, Vol. IX, extended periods and its somewhat magniloquent style. He died in Halifax, N. S., July 13, 1859. CHLORASTROLITE, a dark green stone of the quartz or agate family; a hydrated silicate of alumina, occurring as an amygdule in a Lake Superior trap formation, and found only at Isle Royale, Lake Superior. It is of a deep green color, radiate (or testudinate) in structure, is extremely hard, very lustrous and chatoyant, and cuts handsomely for jewelry-mounting. It is locally known as the "turtle-back greenstone," from its tortoise-like markings. Fine specimens have a good commercial value. CHLORATES. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V, pp. 428, 429. CHLORIC ACID. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V, pp. 428, 429. P. 306. CHLOROPHYLL. See BOTANY, Vol. IV, p. 77; PHYSIOLOGY, Vol. XIX. pp. 59, 60. CHLOROSIS. See PATHOLOGY, Vol. XVIII, p. 382. CHLOROXYLON. See SATIN-WOOD, Vol. XXI, p. 332. CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES, U. S. minister to England; born at Salem, Mass., January 24, 1832; was graduated at Harvard College, 1852; became the law partner of William M. Evarts in New York City, 1857, and by reason of his bril Vol. 2-1. He RUFUS CHOATE. 162 66 CHOKE-CHERRY-CHORAL SOCIETIES Church of the English custom of having choral | shores, regardless of the danger to millions of choirs, that innovation has been largely adopted by the congregations of other denominations. In surpliced choirs the soprano and alto parts are usually taken by boys, and the bass and tenor by men. All are drilled by a choir-master, who conducts several " practices,"" or instructions, during the week; the men usually sing gratuitously, while the boys receive a small compensation for each service and practice which they attend. Among the many advantages of surpliced choirs, as these are called, not the least is the good effect which the incidental discipline, instruction and familiarity with Christian worship have upon the boys themselves. R.C.A. American people. The infection was carried to Hamburg and Havre, and thence to various points in Germany, to Paris, and to other Continental cities. Hamburg suffered especially from the plague, and had at one time 5,000 cases. From there, in the fall, it made its passage by emigrant steamers to New York Harbor, where a quarantine of unsparing rigor effectually checked its progress beyond the shores of the lower bay. The United States government temporarily stopped the admission of emigrants, and with the advance of cold weather the disease died out. In 1893 and 1894 cholera again broke out in many places in Europe, but by a strict quarantine its introduction in the United States was prevented. See CHOLERA, Vol. V, pp. 592-595. CHOLERA INFANTUM, a warm weather disease, very fatal to children in large cities, re CHOKE CHERRY, a name given to a species of cherry of the Bird-cherry section having small fruit in racemes. The fruit is at first agreeable, but afterwards astringent in the mouth. W.R.B. CHOKE-DAMP OR FIRE-DAMP. See Light-sembling cholera in its symptoms. It is due to ing, under COAL, Vol. VI, p. 67. CHOKING COIL. See ELECTRICITY, $78, in these Supplements. CHOLERA. "It is now generally accepted," says Dr. S. T. Armstrong, "that Asiatic cholera is a specific, infectious disease that is caused by the comma bacillus of Koch. It is not contagious in the same sense as smallpox or typhus fever, but in the manner of its propagation is similar to typhoid fever. The premise of a specific infection leads to the conclusion of some definite method of introduction, and the disease is chiefly propagated by the contamination of water used for drinking, cooking and washing, by the contamination of articles of food, and possibly by the superficial inhalation and subsequent swallowing of dust containing the comma bacillus. This latter statement is based on the report of many cases of the disease, the origin of which is explicable by no other tenable hypothesis. In 1892 the United States narrowİy escaped a visitation of this dread disease, which, in that year, entered Europe through Russia. Starting from India in the early weeks of the year, it followed the caravan routes, and, crossing the mountains by the Khyber Pass, it visited Cabul and the Afghan cities, reached the northern line of Russian Transcaspian travel, and made its way westward both by the Merv route and also by way of Persia. It passed across and around the Caspian Sea and broke out in Astrakhan, on its European side, at the mouth of Russia's great river, the Volga, whence it made its way up the Volga valley to Nijni-Novgorod, the city of markets and fairs, and from there it went to Moscow, St. Petersburg and the Baltic Sea. From the Baltic Sea it spread to other parts of Europe, and to America, aided by the great emigration of Russian Jews to the United States and elsewhere which was then in progress under the auspices of Baron Hirsch. Arrangements had been made for the transportation of many thousands of these poor people, and even after the cholera had broken out among them, every effort was made to carry out the contract and dump them on American the combined effects of excessive heat, improper food, with, or without, the concomitant of foul air. It is most fatal in children under the age of two years, especially in those brought up by hand on unsterilized milk, which doubtless contains germs that give rise to the disease. It is characterized by vomiting, purging, great thirst, and complete prostration, and is described as infantile, bilious remittent fever. The pulse becomes feeble, the respiration oppressed, and a comatose state supervenes. In extreme cases death may occur in 24 hours. The remedies are opiates, astringents, and stimulants; above all pure air, pure food and a change to the country, or sea-shore. W.R.B. CHOLESTERIN, a substance (CHO) crystallizing in leaflets, with a mother-of-pearl luster and a fatty feel. It occurs in the blood and brain, in the yolks of eggs, and in the seeds of buds and plants. It has also been found as a fat occurring in the feathers of birds, and is present, in considerable proportions, in wool. It was, until 1887, regarded as of no value when occurring in feathers and wool, except as a combustible. Liebrich has experimented with it and produced an extremely pliant, soft mass, absorbable by the skin, and capable of being readily incorporated with various medicaments. It is now being manufactured commercially, and has come into general demand as a basis for salves and cosmetics. See also NUTRITION, Vol. XVII, p. 694. CHONETES, a brachiopod shell found in Palæozoic formations of Europe and America. CHONOS ISLANDS. See PATAGONIA, Vol. XVIII, p. 357. CHORAL. See MUSIC, Vol. XVII, p. 92. CHORAL SERVICE, in the Church of Eng land, and in the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America, service with intoned responses and the use of music throughout, wherever it is authorized. A service is said to be partly choral when only canticles, hymns, etc., are sung; wholly choral when, in addition to these, the versicles, responses, etc., are sung. CHORAL SOCIETIES. | ICA, in these Supplements. See MUSIC IN AMER CHORDATA-CHRISTIAN VII CHORDATA. See VERTEBRATA, Vol. XXIV, p. 193. | 163 York, the leading advocate of their views, was born in England in 1805, and died in 1871. They CHOREPISCOPUS. See DEAN, Vol. VII, p. 14. believe that God will raise all who love him to an CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL, musical endless life in this world, but that those who do critic; was born in Lancashire, England, on Dec. not love him shall absolutely perish in death; 15, 1808, was educated at Liverpool, and was that Christ was the son of God, begotten of the musical editor of the Athenæum, of London, from Spirit, by the Virgin Mary, and put to death for 1833 to 1868, writing also many literary reviews. human sin-to them the devil. They insist on He was the author of several novels, plays and the plenary inspiration of the Bible; the real poems, none of which attained much success, but death of Christ as a sacrifice for sin; his resurhis Music and Manners in France and Germany rection and ascension; and they look for his (1841) and Thirty Years' Musical Recollections return to the earth to reign on the throne of (1862) won much popularity. He was a strong David over the converted, the restored twelve opponent of Wagner and Berlioz. He died on tribes of Israel, and all nations. They believe February 16, 1872. W.F.J. that death is a state of entire unconsciousness, CHOROGI (Stachys sieboldi). The Japanese terminated by a corporeal resurrection for those name of a perennial comestible vegetable, more who have become related to Christ through faith commonly called "crosne du Japon." W.R.B. and obedience, or are not responsible for his CHOROID COAT. See ANATOMY, Vol. I, rejection. Those accepted after the judgment P. 779 ORRILLOS CHORUS. See DRAMA, Vol. VII, pp. 349, 350. CHOUGH. See CROW, Vol. VI, p. 545. CHOUTEAU, AUGUSTE, an American pioneer; born in New Orleans in 1739. With his brother Pierre (born in New Orleans in 1749) he joined Laclède's expedition for the establishment of the fur trade on the Mississippi, the Missouri, and their tributaries. On February 15, 1764, the Chouteau party founded a post on the present site of St. Louis, where the brothers died, -Auguste, February 24, 1829; and Pierre, July 9, 1849. E.E.T. CHRISM, an ecclesiastical term signifying the ointment used by the Roman Catholic and Greek churches in confirmation, baptism, ordinations, consecrations, etc., which, in modern times, is blessed and consecrated at a service called "Missa Chrismatis," on Maunday Thursday. It consists of olive-oil mixed with balm, to which it is the custom of the Creek Church to add spices. The significance of the oil is "fullness of grace," and of the balm, " incorruption." CHRISOME, an ecclesiastical term signifying the cloth or robe anointed with chrism, laid by the priest upon the child in holy baptism, to signify its regeneration and innocence. As the robe was often used for a shroud in case the child died soon after baptism, the phrase chrisome-child came to be applied to such children as died within the month of birth. CHRISTADELPHIANS,a small religious body which arose in the United States about the middle of the nineteenth century, and who claim to represent the true faith and practice of apostolic times. Dr. John Thomas of Brooklyn, New CHRISTIAN II, KING OF DENMARK AND NORWAY, Son of King John; born July 1, 1480, at Nyborg; attained the throne of Denmark and Norway in 1513, and that of Sweden in 1520. The latter country had risen in arms against him, but he defeated their regent, Sten Sture, in 1518. Immediately after the notables, assembled at Stockholm, had rendered the oath of allegiance, he took terrible vengeance by having 600 of the foremost men of Sweden publicly executed. (The Stockholm Butchery, Nov. 8-10, 1520.) The direct consequence was a new insurrection under Gustavus Vasa, which ended in Sweden's breaking away from the Kalmarian Union. Deposed by the revolting Danes, in 1523, he fled to the Netherlands, was, on his attempt to regain the rule over Norway, captured in 1531 and kept in confinement at the castles of Sonderburg and Kallundborg to the time of his death, January 25, 1559. G.A.S. CHRISTIAN IV, KING OF DENMARK AND NORWAY, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, son of Frederick II; was born in Denmark on April 12, 1577, was elected successor to the throne in 1588, and succeeded to the duchy in 1593 and to the kingdom in 1596. He waged two wars with Sweden, played a brief and inglorious part in the Thirty Years' War, surrendered the Protestant leadership to Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1629 withdrew from foreign affairs to devote himself to domestic matters. In these he was more successful. He vastly extended the trade of the country, promoted the arts and sciences, and won the affection of his people in an exceptional degree. spite his failures in foreign war he became a national hero, and his exploit in a battle at Kiel in 1644, against the Swedes, is commemorated in a national ballad, "King Christian Stood by the Lofty Mast." He died at Copenhagen on February 28, 1648. :W.F.J. CHRISTIAN VII, KING OF DENMARK, son De 164 CHRISTIAN IX-CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR of Frederick V; was born on January 29, 1749, and succeeded to the throne on January 14, 1766. He married Caroline Matilda, sister of George III of England. For many years the queen dowager exercised all real authority, and in 1784 Christian was deposed by his son Frederick. In 1807 the half imbecile king was removed to Holstein, where he died on March 12, 1808. W.F.J. CHRISTIAN IX, KING OF DENMARK, born April 8, 1818, fourth son of William, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein; succeeded to the throne in 1863, his predecessor having been the last of the line of Oldenburg, which had held the government for four hundred years. CHRISTIAN IX, KING OF DENMARK. sion rekindled certain political disputes of long standing, concerning the status of the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, and he was soon involved in an unequal war with Austria and Prussia, from which he withdrew by releasing all claim to the disputed territory (which amounted to about one third of his dominion), leaving the other contestants to fight for the prize between themselves in a war which ended with the battle of Sadowa in 1866. To obtain money for the reorganization of his army, he desired to sell to the United States, in 1867, the islands of St. Thomas, St. Jean and Ste. Croix of the Antilles. In 1869 he cemented the union of the Scandinavian peoples by the marriage of his eldest son to the only daughter of Charles XV, King of Sweden. a ruler he has striven for the moral and material improvement of his people, for their increase in personal and religious liberty, and for the removal As of feudal encumbrances from their laws. The two legislative houses voted a new constitution in 1866, and in 1874 a new constitution was granted to Iceland upon the thousandth anniversary of its national existence. In 1892 was celebrated with becoming splendor the fiftieth anniversary of the marriage of King Christian with his consort, the Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Among their children are: Frederick, the Prince Royal; Alexandra, Princess of Wales; George I, King of the Greeks; and Dagmar, Dowager Empress of Russia. CHRISTIAN, FREDERICK CHRISTIAN CHARLES AUGUSTUS, PRINCE, a younger son of the late Duke Christian Charles Frederick Augustus of Schleswig-Holstein, who ceded his duchy to Denmark, and brother to Prince Frederick Charles Augustus, whose claims to the sovereignty of that duchy, as against the King of Denmark, were made the pretext for the Schleswig-Holstein War on the part of the German powers; born Jan. 22, 1831; married the Princess Helen Augusta Victoria of England, July 5, 1866; is a general in the British army and a Knight of the Garter, and has held other important honorary and lucrative positions with credit to himself and with the good will of the British public. CHRISTIAN, HELEN AUGUSTA VICTORIA, PRINCESS, third daughter of Queen Victoria of England; born May 25, 1846; married at Windsor Castle, July 5, 1866, to Prince Frederick Christian Charles Augustus of Schleswig-Holstein; received from the British Parliament on the occasion of her marriage a dowry of $150,000 and an annuity of $30,000. She resides at Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, and has living two sons and two daughters. CHRISTIAN ALLIANCE, a religious association organized in 1887, with its headquarters at 692 Eighth Avenue, New York City. It was founded by Rev. A. B. Simpson, who has been its president from the date of its organization. Its membership, as described by its founder, "consists of all professing Christians who subscribe to its principles and enroll their names." Its objects are stated to be "wide diffusion of the Gospel in its fullness, the promotion of a deeper and higher Chris. tian life, and the work of evangelization, espe cially among the neglected classes, by highway missions and any other practical methods." The organization is said to be rapidly extending, especially throughout the United States and Canada. Auxiliary to the parent alliance is the "International Missionary Alliance," with a missionary training-school located at 690 Eighth Avenue, New York City. At the end of 1895 the organization had established 265 missionaries in India, China, Japan, Haiti, and Congo Free State. In New York City special work is done for fallen girls by means of "The Door of Hope," a branch "home" opened by the alli ance, at 102 East Sixty-first Street, and another, known as "Door No. 2," in Tappan, New York. CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, THE, was a religious and benevolent organization which did a great work for the spiritual and material welfare of the Federal soldiers in the Civil War. It was founded in the fall of 1861, upon the initiative of the Young Men's Christian Association, under the presidency of George H. Stuart, of Philadelphia, a wealthy and benevolent business man much devoted to religious work. thousands of clergymen and laymen for work battlefield as well as in the hospitals. among the volunteer soldiers, in camp and on the It enrolled W.F.J. CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, THE UNITED SOCIETY OF, is the headquarters and general bureau of the YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETIES OF CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, the first of which was formed at Williston Church, Portland, Maine, Feb. 2, 1881, and which, in Nov., 1904, had increased to 64,804 societies, with a membership of 3,888, 240 in the United States, Canada, Great Britain and missionary lands. The United Society's offices are at 646 Washington Street, Boston, Massachusetts, and is managed by a board of trustees, who represent the chief evangelical denominations, and who meet quarterly. It levies no taxes and assumes CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE-CHRISTIANS no authority over the Young People's Societies, each of which is in some local church and manages its own affairs. CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING, is the oldest of a number of great religious associations connected with the Church of England. It was founded in London in 1698, and has for its main objects the establishment of schools, churches and libraries; and the publication and circulation of religious and moral literature. It is still in active operation and publishes a great number of religious and instructive works. It has contributed largely to the endowment of colonial bishoprics. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE is the name of a religio-scientific system which was discovered in the year 1866 by Rev. Mary Baker G. Eddy, a native and resident of New Hampshire. She has presented an exposition of this Science in her text-book, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, and in her other writings, and has founded the Christian Science religious denomination and all its institutional activity. The teachings of Mrs. Eddy have been accepted by many people who are known as Christian Scientists and have established Christian Science churches and societies. A report dated June, 1904, states that up to that time 850 of these congregations had been formed. Many of these have erected large and costly church edifices. At the head of these is The First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, Mass., which is known as the Mother Church, and has a membership of over thirty thousand. The principal auditorium of this church is estimated to seat five thousand people. Mrs. Eddy is the Pastor Emeritus of the Mother Church and is the acknowledged Leader of the movement. The church edifice at Mrs. Eddy's home city in Concord, N. H., a massive structure of New Hampshire granite, was completed in 1904, and was the gift of Mrs. Eddy to the local church society. The denomination maintains an educational system, at the head of which is the Massachusetts Metaphysical College; also a Publishing Society, which publishes The Christian Science Journal, the Christian Science Sentinel, Der Christian the Christian Science Sentinel, Der Christian Science Herold, and other periodicals, books, etc. The church services consist of Bible reading, prayer, singing, etc., and as a substitute for preaching, two Readers read alternately selections from the Bible and from Science and Health, with a view to explaining and interpreting the Scriptural teaching concerning various subjects. The Mother Church exercises certain denominational authority over the branch churches, but the latter are practically independent and exist under a purely democratic or congregational form of church government. Such statistics as are accessible, indicate large and rapid congregational growth. Mrs. Eddy claims to disclose the actual Science of Christianity, or the Science of Jesus' teaching and works. She emphasizes the statement that God is Spirit, and that in the realm of the real, all is spiritual; all is the divine, 165 infinite Mind and Mind's ideas. Christian Science holds to the supreme spiritual individuality of God as Omniscience and rejects all man-made creeds and all limited, finite conceptions which have been substituted for actual scientific knowledge of Deity. It declares that there can be but one true religion or theology; that true or scientific religion is knowable and of speculative religions which have involved themselves in demonstrable, and it announces itself as a step in advance mystery, and the world in sectarian contention. Christian Scientists declare that they believe in "prayer without ceasing," in the inspiration of the Scriptures, the divinity of Christ, the immortality of life, in the necessity of repentance and reform, in sinless living, and in all the essentials of the Christianity which Christ Jesus taught and demonstrated. In their church services they avoid ceremonials, ritualism, and forms, and claim to have no other models than the Ten Commandments, the Sermon on the Mount, and the life and teachings of the Saviour. Christian Science differs from many other religious beliefs in that it affirms that God has not procured or instituted any evil. It disposes of the so-called mystery of evil by the statement that it is an illegitimate abnormity, a false, material sense of being, and that all evil can be eliminated, and in time will be abolished. Christian Science denies the present or prospective existence of eternal hell and devil. It states that through ignorance, superstition, fear, sin, and an utterly erroneous sense of existence, humanity has involved itself in mortality and in all the suffering which is incidental to mortals who are governed by the "carnal mind" instead of by the divine Mind, or God. It claims that sickness is unnatural, unlawful, and unnecessary, and that it is as essential that humanity should emerge from the realm of disease, as that it should emerge from that of sin. Christian Scientists affirm that the healing by Jesus was done on the basis that life and health are normal, and that disease is neither an entity nor of irresistible impulsion. A distinctive feature of Christian Science is seen in its teaching, which declares that it presents the true, scienPrinciple upon which such healing rests, and the rule tific therapeutic system or science of healing; also the whereby it may be accomplished. It is declared that all such healing is rational, lawful, and scientific, that it is the same as was exhibited by Christ Jesus, and that its practice was and is an indispensable incident of Christianity. It is claimed that by these means more than a million instances of healing have been accomplished, and that nearly every known disease has been mastered. EDWARD A. KIMBALL, C.S.D. August, 1904. It has advanced rapidly under the stimulus of modern CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway. industrial activity. In 1898 it had 375 factories employing 17,383 hands, and 1899 its port was entered by 2,710 vessels of 1,000, 740 tons. Pop. 1900, See CHRISTIANIA, Vol. V, p. 597. CHRISTIANS OR CHRISTIAN CONNEC TIONS, the name of a religious body in the U.S., which seceded from the Methodists of Va, and N. C., led by Rev. J. O'Kelley, and at first called 227,626. 66 Republican Methodists." The name was changed sectarianism. They must not be confounded with that it might express their renunciation of all the "Christian Churches" or "Disciples of Christ." About 1800, they received accessions from Baptist churches in Vt., under Dr. Abner Jones and others, and from Presbyterians in Ky. In 1901 they had 1,520 churches, 1,248 ministers and 113,000 communicants. Antioch College, O.; Lincoln College, Neb.; Union Christian College at Meron, Ind.; and the Christian Biblical Institute of Stanfordsville, N. Y., are among their institutions. |