Novels and poems, tion to generation by word of mouth. even essays and orations, represent life. a vital interpretation of the life of a time, we go, if we are wise, to its literature. One of the earliest literary forms was the epic, which celebrated in verse the deeds of great national heroes. It arose before the days of literary artists and printed books. The author counted for little. In the earliest popular form such poems may be said to have had no author. They were heroic stories which sang themselves out of the life of the people. Everybody knew them. No one claimed them as his. They passed from mouth to mouth and from generation to generation, any one changing them who wished. Each minstrel who recited them told them in his own way and added to them at will. They grew from year to year and from age to age until they became, in the end, great popular epics a direct reflection of the national life. THE ILIAD The story of the siege of Troy is such an epic, a picture of life among the prehistoric Greeks. The Trojan war, upon which the story is based, took place about twelve hundred years before Christ, near the close of a long and brilliant period of old Greek civilization. At Mycenæ, on the mainland of Greece, and on the islands, notably Ithaca and Crete, the archeologists have uncovered strongly built fortresses and cities with beautiful palaces finely appointed and showing a high degree of civilization as old as that of Egypt. In Crete, three distinct cities, one above another, have been found. On the site of Troy in Asia Minor, Schliemann and Dörpfeld have uncovered nine distinct layers of ruins, called by them the nine cities of Ilium; and one of these, the sixth from the bottom, has been identified as the Troy of The Iliad, for the civilization there revealed by the archeologists is the civilization that The Iliad portrays. But this great era is altogether prehistoric. The life pictured in The Iliad belongs three hundred years at least before the beginning of authentic history and is separated from it by three centuries of barbarism called the Dark Ages. Besides what archeology teaches, we know nothing about this early period except from the Homeric poems and from vague tradition. It seems clear, however, that about eleven hundred years before Christ, tribes of men called the Dorians. came down from the north and overthrew the older civilization; and that the original inhabitants were scattered, some of them migrating to the coast of Asia Minor and the neighboring islands, and carrying with them their traditions. Among the traditions that thus passed from the mainland of Greece to Asia Minor were stories about the siege of Troy, which we have in their later form in The Iliad. Just how these stories came into their final form, just who Homer was and when he lived, just the extent to which the stories had already come together in the formation of a long epic before Homer began to work upon them, just how much Homer changed the form of the stories all these questions are matters of controversy that need not be discussed here. Suffice it to say that the epic reached substantially the form in which we know it as early as eight hundred and fifty years before Christ. The Iliad consists of episodes, more or less independent, about various heroes, as Diomedes and Achilles. The largest and most important episode is "the wrath of Achilles." This is a simple, straightforward story of the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, the prayer of Thetis to Zeus for glory for her son, the defeat of the Greeks, the request to Achilles to send Patroclus, the arming of Patroclus, his death at the hands of Hector, the rescue of his body, the bringing of the news to Achilles, the reconciliation of the latter to his chief, his exploits on the battle field, and the vengeance he takes upon Hector. The exact relation of this story to the other episodes does not concern us here. The only significant point is that The Iliad was not composed as a modern novel, for instance, is composed, or as Paradise Lost was composed, but that it was the outcome of a long line of national tradition and therefore represents not so much the reflective thought of a single author as the life of an entire people. The Iliad, therefore, is very close to life; a simple, direct story of the achievements of heroes, with little or no comment, reflection, and moralizing on the part of an author. It is story rather than history, yet we see there an old and wonderful civilization reflected. The equipment of armies, the methods of warfare in the attack and defense of cities, the relations of kings and chieftains and warriors, the ideals of family life, the conception of what parts the gods play in human affairs, the character of the gods themselves and the methods of sacrifice to them all these and much besides are presented in a magnificent moving picture. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY BOOK I. The Iliad is not a complete account of the Trojan war, but merely an account of certain episodes in it; notably the "wrath of Achilles." How long has the war been going on when the story opens? (See Book II.1) Make a list of the gods who favor the Greeks and those who favor the Trojans. Why is the epithet "far-darter" appropriate to Apollo? Why should Apollo send pestilence rather than some other form of punishment? What are the differences 1 In making references to texts of the classics, the volumes of The Macmillan Pocket Series have been primarily in mind. in character between Achilles and Agamemnon? What does Book I tell about the customs of warfare among the Greeks? Pallas Athene is the goddess of intellect. The better judgment of Achilles is thus personified. He is supported throughout by Intelligence. Was Athene anything more to the Greeks than intelligence personified by means of a capital letter? Make a collection of wise and pithy sayings like "Whosoever obeyeth the gods, to him they gladly harken." Make a list of the adjectives applied to the sea. Explain in your own words how the Greeks offered sacrifice. What adjectives are applied to Zeus, the son of Cronus? Is Zeus just? Are the gods really "the happy gods"? Are they highly moral? BOOK II. Does Zeus act in a godlike manner? Explain the exact relation between the king and his warriors. Cite passages to show whether or not the king was an absolute ruler? How important was the individual warrior? To what extent did he have freedom of speech? Characterize Odysseus, citing passages in illustration. Distinguish the characters of Agamemnon, Achilles, Odysseus, Nestor, Thersites. The Greeks thought largely in pictures. Point out the most picturesque passages. What is a simile? Point out the most striking similes. BOOKS III AND IV. Books III and IV treat of individual combats between the various warriors. They may be hastily read or even omitted. BOOK V. Explain the attitude of the gods toward one another. Explain the attitude of Diomedes toward the gods. Notice that the gods, though immortal, are not invulnerable. What is meant by "bestriding a friend in battle"? BOOK VI. What was the Trojan idea of the character of Athene? Indicate the chief difference between ancient and modern warfare. (Cf. Macaulay's Essay on Addison, par agraphs 54-55.) Notice the importance of hospitality and guest-friendship. What influence did it have upon warriors in battle? What was the cost of a good suit of armor expressed in terms of other commodities? Do the conditions of life seem crude or refined? Explain. Gather notes for a short account of the Greek civilization. What impression do you get of Helen from her talk and actions? What difference in tone do you notice between this book and the preceding books? Is the sentiment, for instance, more refined? Contrast Andromache and Helen. (Notice how each is employed.) Point out the finest passages of pathos and explain why they are admirable. Contrast Hector and Paris. BOOK VII. By what means is Hector's greatness brought out? Would the description of the combat between Aias and Hector be so interesting if it were less specific, less condensed, or less rapid? Describe the combat in your own words. Did the Greeks always burn their dead? Book VIII. The eighth book may be read rapidly or omitted. BOOK IX. Does the style of Book IX seem more simple or more elaborate than the style of Book I? Which has the greater number of extended similes? What does the use of the adjective "crooked-counselling" to characterize Cronus imply in regard to the Greek religion? Do Diomedes and Nestor speak fearlessly and plainly to the king? Is the king a weak king? Does he have any more power than that of a chief among warriors? In what ways do these primitive men act like children? Does Odysseus, in his speech with Achilles, maintain his reputation as a clever, tactful man? Does this book show more delicacy and refinement than the others? How do Diomedes and Odysseus differ in character? |