seen how the people flocked to the theater to hear about England's heroic past. In the same way, they came to hear the latest murder or scandal, the newest Italian or Spanish story. For a number of years, the playwrights had been accustomed to put on the stage whatever public opinion craved. At first, the work was crude, like the yellow journalism of to-day, a veritable tragedy of blood. But gradually the playwrights improved in taste. Men like Christopher Marlowe, who knew something of the classical drama then having a revival in the schools, began to write for the stage with more definite ideas of the dramatic art. These men began to develop a sense for tragic situations; they learned to select dramatic material; they felt the need of a definite dramatic theme; they prepared the way for Shakespeare.

Shakespeare developed the idea that tragedy is not a bloody narrative in dialogue, but human passion in action. He recognized the two forces at work in man's experience: a force within him, his individuality, often strong and passionate; a force outside of him, blocking the way to selfrealization, the force of environment, destiny, fate, God. He knew that the clash of these two forces makes tragedy, human will in conflict with the laws of life, passion clashing with environment or fate. A strong, passionate soul struggles to express itself in action, but finds itself in conflict with forces it cannot control. The clash brings tragic consequences. Tragedy, therefore, is threefold: (1) passion, (2) the struggle to express that passion in action, (3) the inevitable consequences of the deed. Macbeth, for instance, is ruled by the passion of ambition; he must sit upon the throne of Scotland. He struggles to achieve his ambition, kills Duncan, and becomes king. His actions, however, set in motion great forces of life which bring back upon him the

inevitable consequences of his sins. In the very nature of a tragedy, there is a definite beginning, middle, and endintroduction, climax, and catastrophe. An individual passion is aroused. It reaches its climax in a clash with outside forces. The clash brings tragic consequences.

Herein is the explanation of the acts of a drama. A developed tragedy seems to demand three acts at least: an introductory act, a climax act, and a catastrophe act. There may, however, be more; in Shakespeare's tragedies there are five. Passion once aroused needs time to develop toward a climax. Shakespeare devoted an entire act to this development, technically called the rising action. Also after the climax, the forces of reaction need time to become operative and develop toward the catastrophe. Shakespeare devoted an entire act to this movement, called technically the falling or returning action. The conventional tragic form thus became :

Act IV.

The Falling or Returning Action.
Act V. The Catastrophe.

JULIUS CÆSAR

In the events which clustered around the assassination of Julius Cæsar, Shakespeare found typical material for a tragic drama. A small band of conspirators, moved by ambition and misguided patriotism, sought the death of Cæsar, accomplished their end, and then, in the events which followed, suffered the inevitable consequences of their deed. Here is a great dramatic centerpiece with an almost perfect balance of material on either side; for, on one side, all the events lead directly to the climax; on the other side, all the

events are direct consequences of it. In the first act of Shakespeare's drama, the characters are introduced and the social conditions out of which the drama arises explained. In the second act, the conspiracy is developed. The third act presents the triumph of the conspirators in the death of Cæsar. In the fourth act, the forces of reaction represented by Antony, Octavius, and the Ghost of Cæsar are brought into play. The fifth act recounts the downfall and death of the conspirators in a final catastrophe.

SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY

Act I

SCENE 1. This little scene makes an admirable beginning. The fickle mob furnishes background for the action, and shows the uncertain political conditions of the time, thus striking the key-note of the play. It also shows Rome's attitude toward Cæsar. Compare the first scene in Macbeth.

Explain the puns and plays upon words in lines 11, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 28. Why is there a change from prose to verse at line 36? Indicate the passages which look forward to the main action of the play.

SCENE 2. This scene is technically the introduction or exposition scene. It brings in all the principal characters connected with the rising action, shows how they differ in character, and explains the relations which they bear one to another. It gives in detail the exact situation in Rome, and, at the end, broaches the subject of the conspiracy. What lines mark the beginning of the rising action?

Indicate the particular passages which explain the character of Cæsar, Brutus, and Cassius.. Remember that in spite of all Cassius and Casca say of Cæsar he is still a great power in the state, and that his power, now kept in

the background, is destined to play an important part in the action. Contrast the motives of Brutus and of Cassius. What in the character of Brutus makes him the victim of adroit flattery? What are the five parts into which this scene may be divided? Explain the special purpose of each part. Notice how the mob is made a constant background for the action.

SCENE 3. To what extent does this scene develop the conspiracy? Shakespeare is very skillful in making supernatural elements deepen the tragic significance of his theme. Notice in detail how they help to work up an emotional tension. Cite examples of the use of the supernatural in other plays. The supernatural made a deeper impression on an Elizabethan audience than it does on a modern audience, for the people were then closer to the superstitions of the Middle Ages. The superstitions were perhaps no longer definitely believed, but they were still in the blood, and the people were imaginatively very susceptible to them.

Act II

SCENE 1. What is the main purpose of this scene? Indicate the particular passages which show the gradual change in the mind of Brutus as he is little by little won over to the conspiracy. Explain his attitude in lines 10-34. Is he deceiving himself? Is his reasoning sound? Is the talk about the sunrise natural? Why is it introduced? Why is the conversation between Brutus and Cassius not introduced into the text and developed? Notice the respect shown toward Brutus. Compare the talk of Brutus and Cassius. Which has the keener intellect? Which has the more noble spirit? (Give reasons.) Select three or four adjectives which describe Portia's character as it appears in this scene.

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SCENE 2. Why is Cæsar's weakness dwelt upon? Is he the hero of the play? If not, why is the play called Julius Cæsar?

SCENE 4. Does Portia know of the conspiracy? Give reasons. Make a brief summary of the rising action thus far.

Act III

SCENE 1. This is technically the climax scene of the play. Explain why. What lines indicate the highest point of triumph of the conspirators? At the moment of triumph, what force is introduced which is finally to undo the conspirators? Explain how the nobility of Brutus, which has all along been the strength of the conspiracy, now becomes its weakness. Is Brutus intellectually weak? Is he a practical man? Would the conspiracy have succeeded if the advice of Cassius had been followed? Explain how the control of the action passes over into the hands of Antony. Compare the attitude of Cassius toward Antony with the attitude of Brutus toward him. Learn by heart lines 254275, and try to express the passion climax contained in them. Divide the scene into its component parts. There are two principal situations and two transition parts. Compare Brutus as a man of action with Henry V.

SCENE 2. Compare the speeches of Brutus and Antony carefully. Why is one in prose and the other in verse? Which is the more intellectual? Which is the more emotional? (Cite passages in explanation.) Indicate particular places in Antony's speech which show his ability to appreciate the temper of his audience and to adapt himself to any change in their feelings. Is there any reason why he should pause at line 108, except that Shakespeare does not wish to make the speech so long that the audience will feel that we have passed from drama to oratory?