guide for pruning the subject of its superfluous and indigestible parts. It is not possible in a short paper to consider the whole history course. Hence, ancient history is taken to illustrate the method of adapting history to the needs and capacity of the pupil because this period seems to present the most serious difficulties. The "Eastern Nations" will be especially considered, since, in the judgment of the writer, this period of history, as usually presented, is the most confusing and profitless phase of ancient history.

Reference has been made to a text by Robinson and Breasted in which the essentials of the history of six thousand years are included. This is intended as one high school unit. It is not believed that our eighth grade pupils would be able to do this text in a year; but, in the judgment of the writer, the authors have presented ancient history in a remarkably sane manner, especially the division commonly denominated the Eastern Nations. The first period of ancient history is considerably abridged. Little attempt is made to develop the political narrative, but much emphasis is given to the achievements of these early nations. Many pictures illustrating the life and activities of the people are used and carefully explained. The simple language is intelligible to the young pupil and the matters discussed appeal to his interest. This text is recommended to the teacher who desires to work out a new plan of presenting this period of history.

The political narratives of the peoples of the Nile Valley and of the peoples of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley are so condensed and so lacking in interesting detail that it seems a waste of time for the pupil to attempt to master the story in chronological order. Hence, little or no time should be devoted to a consideration of the political history of the "Eastern Nations."

Omitting the narrative of the Egyptians, for example, the pupil should start the work with a careful study of the geography of Egypt. Relative position, climate, soil, etc., should be studied and discussed. Then would come a consideration of the people. This would lead to a discussion of the great divisions of the human race and the peoples to whom we are debtors for our conditions of well-being.

Indefinite, intangible generalities give the young pupil nothing to tie to. The pupil is more interested in objects than in

facts, hence, the tools and weapons of the ancients make a greater appeal to his mind than do data relative to constitutional development.

The pupil must not be led to form the notion that the achievements of the past were wholly in the field of fine arts. Too much emphasis is given to this aspect of ancient history and not enough to the industrial arts, and the commercial and scientific accomplishments. Pupils master a few phrases which they use glibly in discussing the art of the past. Often the "pat" phrases obscure for the pupil any real appreciation of the subject under consideration. It would be well to spend much time in listing and discussing the "know hows" of the early races.

The following partial lists of contributions are given for the purpose of suggesting the line of attack for our eighth grade beginners in general history. The teacher should encourage free discussion and insist upon a thorough study of these achievements. Ideas represent the only heritage that has a permanent value. Other facts of history are important only in so far as they bear a causal relation to ideas that tend to improve conditions, both material and spiritual, under which man lives.

I. Knowledge possessed by the late stone-age man:

He knew how to make and use stone tools and weapons. He knew how to make and use crude agricultural implements, wheeled carts, clothing from skins and flax, furniture, rude huts and pottery. He knew how to use fire and to cook his food, how to barter with neighboring tribes, how to cultivate some domesticated plants, and how to raise such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs. He had learned to construct tombs wherein he buried his dead. He had made a beginning in art in that he had learned to engrave the figures of animals upon ivory tusks.

These achievements of pre-historic man should be discussed at length and should be related to the achievements of man of the present day.

II. Knowledge possessed by the early Egyptians:

The Egyptians learned how to build dried-brick houses, to make glazed brick, to make pottery, using

the potter's wheel and the furnace, to make and use ink, paper and pens, to make glass, furniture, linen, clothing, shoes, tombs, temples, pyramids, and ships. These people learned how to irrigate their crops, how to raise wheat, barley, millet, and a variety of vegetables. They developed and made use of an alphabet and a calendar; made books and collected libraries. By 3000 B. C. the Egyptians were making tools of metal and had mastered enough of mechanics to handle the great blocks of stone that were used in building the pyramids. They knew how to use the column for decoration and for support. They also knew how to use the arch. They knew how to raise and make use of cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, etc. In the fine arts the Egyptians knew how to paint, sculpture and make jewelry. They knew how to embalm and they knew something of algebra, geometry, and astronomy. With the introduction of the horse they learned how to make and use the war chariot. The Nile Valley people developed an extensive international trade and worked out some commercial devices. The Egyptians developed a social system consisting of several distinct classes and a religious system which embodied a belief in a future life. These people also founded a great empire.

Enough time should be devoted to the achievements of the Egyptians to give the pupil a vivid picture of the Egyptian in his material environment, and the accomplishments discussed should be interpreted in terms of the pupil's environment.

III. Knowledge possessed by the Tigris-Euphrates Valley people:

These people learned independently and through contact with other peoples how to carry on trade,—in fact, they developed extensive machinery for facilitating the exchange of commodities. They made use of boats and caravans for carrying on commerce. They knew how to build mud-brick huts, to build dikes, to irrigate, to make agricultural implements,

as the plow, wheeled-cart, hoe, etc. They knew how to raise and use such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, and goats. They knew how to write and keep records. They collected libraries and worked out a calendar of twelve lunar months, developed a system of religion, a caste system of society, and the city state form of political organization. Through Hammurabi the Babylonians worked out a most remarkably comprehensive code of civil and criminal law. The Babylonian civilization was highly commercial.

The Assyrians, who, at a later period dominated the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, represent a vigorous, conquering, military civilization. These people learned to make weapons of iron, to use the war chariot, to organize and govern an empire. They were skillful in the portrayal of animals in stone. They borrowed their decorative art from the Egyptians, but they knew how to make glazed brick. They collected plants from the whole empire and established a kind of botanical garden. It is probable that they learned how to grow cotton. They established a great library in which was accumulated the records of the past.

In studying the foregoing list of achievements constant reference should be made to the achievements of the Egyptians and the pupil should be led to make comparisons. The Tigris-Euphrates civilization should be related to that of the Nile Valley and to the civilization of the present. All the illustrative material available should be used to make real for the pupil the "Know hows" of these ancient people.

IV. The part played by the Phoenicians in promoting civilization:

These people adapted, improved, and distributed the
achievements of the two great valley civilizations.
[The part played by the Cretans as distributors should
be called to the attention of pupils.]

V. The function of the Hebrews:

Much should be made of the fact that the Hebrews de

veloped a permanent monotheistic religion and established a universal moral code.

The other Asiatic peoples should receive little attention from the eighth grade pupil. They story of the Persians and their significant accomplishments can, perhaps, be most effectively presented when the pupil comes to the study of the Graeco-Persian

wars.

It is of prime importance that the pupil should learn what is meant by the terms, progress of civilization. The past must not only be related to the present, but it must be related to the present of the pupil's comprehension. In order that the pupil may appreciate man's transition from the primitive conditions in which we find him at the dawn of history to his present state of comfort and well-being, the pupil must consider the multitude of things that are conducive to man's welfare and enjoyment in this good year of 1915. The forms of wealth, both public and private, activities, both social and political, should be brought to the attention of the pupil by concrete illustration. When this has been done the pupil will be able to comprehend the hard conditions of primitive man and to evaluate his achievements by relating them to the utilities of the present. In this way the pupil becomes actively conscious of the meaning of the terms, progress of civilization.

Because great men and their deeds appeal to the interest of young pupils, attention should be given to some of the important characters in the history of the Ancient East. Such names as Rameses II, Tiglath-Pileser, Moses, David, Darius, etc., are worthy of consideration.

It will also be worth while for the pupils to understand that great empires were developed and were succeeded by other great empires. But it is rather fruitless to endeavor to teach eighth grade pupils the details involved in the establishment of these empires, or to have children attempt to learn the names of rulers, their dates and the events that occurred under each particular king.

Teachers, as a rule, find that pupils master without difficulty the rather simple narrative involved in Greek and Roman history. There is enough of interesting, uncomplicated detail to hold the attention, and there is much vigorous action which is thrilling to