in them are generally similar to those of the State courts where they sit. The Supreme Court prescribes the rules of practice in equity cases.

The circuit courts have power to appoint commissioners to take affidavits and testimony, and perform other subordinate judicial functions usually discharged by State magistrates in criminal cases.

The salary of circuit judges is five thousand dollars.

CHAPTER LIV.

I. DISTRICT COURTS AND THEIR OFFICERS.

DISTRICT judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, and hold their offices during good behavior. Their jurisdiction is limited to a specified district, embracing a part, or often a whole State. It is one of the inferior courts contemplated by the constitution, and ranks below the circuit courts, to which its decisions can be taken for revision. They appoint their own clerks. The marshals and district-attorneys attend them as they do the circuit courts. This tribunal has original jurisdiction in all admiralty causes, and of most of the cases arising in the custom-houses, and those growing out of bankruptcies. The Supreme Court prescribes rules in admiralty and bankruptcy cases for the district courts. The salaries of the judges vary from fifteen hundred to five thousand dollars.

2. MARSHALS.

The word marshal has not always indicated the same functions and duties. Originally a marshal was an attendant upon a horse. He rose in position

as he manifested skill in the management of the animal. In England, he was the personal protector of the king, and held a court to determine questions among those about the king's person. Subsequently he preserved order in the army, and afterward was intrusted with frontier commands. He is now the eighth in rank among the great officers of state in England. The seven who outrank him are, the lord high steward, the lord chancellor, the lord high treasurer, the lord president of the council, the lord privy seal, the lord great chamberlain, and the lord high constable.

In France, marshals have devoted themselves mainly to arms, and enjoy the highest military positions in the empire.

In the United States, the term "marshal” is but another name for "sheriff," the duties being those performed by that officer in England, and in the different States of the Union. There is one for each judicial district.

The marshals are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, and hold for the term of four years. They attend upon the federal circuit and district courts, and serve all processes issued by them. They give bonds, and, under the direction of the courts, pay their expenses, such as jury and witness fees, and incidental charges. They receive a nominal salary of two hundred dollars, and a per diem of five dollars a day when attending court; but their principal compensation is derived from fees for

serving process and disbursing money. The marshal for the District of Columbia attends the Supreme Court during its sessions.

The marshals are required to report to the Attorney-General an account of their official proceedings, and the state and condition of their offices, at such time and in such manner as the Attorney-General may direct.

3. DISTRICT-ATTORNEYS.

The name of these officers does not indicate their duties or the extent of their official jurisdiction.

Formerly, in England, and now in some of the American States, a district of country embracing several counties was assigned to a judge, in which he held criminal courts, called Oyer and Terminer— to hear and determine. An attorney to represent the crown, or State, was necessary to enter upon trials. As he was selected to proceed through the whole district, he received the appellation of " districtattorney." In the federal courts, and in many of the States, the duties of this officer have become local, confined to a particular county, or place of holding a single court. But the name of the officer continues the same as formerly, when there was reason for its application to him.

District-attorneys represent the United States in all their business in the circuit and district courts, both civil and criminal. In civil suits, they stand in the same relation to the government that other

attorneys do to their clients. They also represent the United States in the prosecution of all crimes. and misdemeanors. This office is one largely sought for by lawyers. The position is considered highly respectable, and is often exceedingly profitable.

The district-attorneys receive a nominal salary of two hundred dollars, and the residue of their compensation is mainly derived from fees prescribed by an act of Congress. When they defend officers and others at the instance of the government, their remuneration is not regulated by law, but depends upon agreement.

The district-attorneys are required by law to report to the Attorney-General an account of their official proceedings, and the state and condition of their offices, at such time and in such manner as he may direct.

4. ATTORNEYS-AT-LAW.

In the federal as well as in the State courts, attorneys-at-law are officers of the court, and amenable to it. They are appointed or licensed by the court before they can act, except in one or two States, where all regulations to secure knowledge and integrity in their occupation are abolished. No one can be admitted who does not maintain a good moral character, and has not sufficient legal knowledge to understand the business of his client. Courts remove them for improper conduct.

The word "attorney” means one who is put in the