O. E. noun compounded with any one of these particles, but upon the verb itself in the verb-compound, it is but natural that the noun-compound should survive with its earlier values when the verb had largely vanished. For the tendency to stress the adverb, which we have already called attention to, found the noun satisfactorily accented where the verb was not. And so it came about that the O. E. verb-compound, in its struggle for existence, either fossilized with certain figurative values, as in forgive, upset, withhold, leaving the prefix almost colorless, or else gave to the prefix new and quite different values, as in outdo, overfeed, while the nouncompound was left in numerous instances with meanings which could be matched only in the newer verb-adverb combinations, as, for example, onlooker and look on, outcry and cry out.

3. A careful examination of the examples which I have selected as verb-adverb combinations from the literature produced before the sixteenth century brings into prominence quite clearly the fact that for a long time the combination was used in its literal sense, or with a slightly transferred meaning only. Of some ninety-two examples noted in the Middle English literature mentioned above, hardly a dozen could be regarded as strongly figurative. Such combinations as wende ut, uorþ iladde, smite off, strek out, kairen aboute, come up, ryden out are really little more than verbs with adverbial modifiers. Moreover, in practically all of the instances where a verb-adverb combination is formed of the elements which enter into a still-existent verb-compound, the combination has the literal value and the compound the figurative. Cf. offset and set off, outgrow and grow out, outlive and live out, uphold and hold up, upset and set up.

4. But when, in the Digby play of the Conversion of St. Paul, Seruus says to his fellow of the stables, "Come of a-pase" (line 86), the original literal use of the phrase is scarcely to be conjectured. And when, a little over a century later, in the Knight of The Burning Pestle, one finds let out 'dismiss,' laid up 'saved,' come by acquire,' the figurative or transferred use of the combination has manifestly assumed a place in the English language quite independent of the literal usage. And intermingled with these figurative combinations are others, also common in modern usage, wherein the verb is used literally but the adverbial particle has a perfective or intensive value somewhat removed from its usual prepositional values, such combinations, for example, as worn out 'exhausted,' or dry up (those tears).

As I shall attempt to prove later, other influences have become strong in more recent times in increasing the number and importance of the verbadverb combinations. But for the earlier stages of development two influences must be considered paramount, namely, the tendency to shift the

erbial particle instead of a verb with an inseparable prefix, and the natually resultant tendency to transfer the combination from a literal to a gurative use which has gradually left certain combinations with meanings uite different from those of the literal originals. This figurative usage illustrated in such colloquialisms as blow in 'spend money,' buckle down pply oneself with vigor,' chime in 'join in a conversation,' chip in 'conibute,' set about 'begin,' spruce up 'dress neatly,' take off 'burlesque,' etc. The figures which I have given for the earlier stages of the developent of the verb-adverb combination must not, of course, be taken as exand final evidence of the strength of the tendency. In the first place, I ve included all combinations with forth, which I have not included in study of later combinations. In the earlier period it must be considered ause it was a living, active word whereas in modern English it has dually dropped out of general use. Moreover it has not always been y to decide whether a prepositional particle should be considered a part a verb-adverb combination or merely a postpositive preposition. In elok, for instance, I find:

Iustises dede he maken newe

Al Engelond to faren porw (lines 263-4).

, finally, as I have found it inadvisable to attempt in the one study a ful history of the growth of the verb-adverb combination in its earlier, al period and at the same time a thoro-going estimate of its recent t has seemed best to deal with the aspects of the study which concern ost today and leave the more careful tracing of its earlier development me one who will search out more completely the earliest occurrences e combination and mark as exactly as possible the transitions from eral to the figurative.

. I have been influenced in this choice by the fact that the verbo combination seems to be an important element in that "shop-talk” glish of the common man" which is so much affected by certain of riters and public speakers. A careful examination of the lanof most speakers and writers who are attempting to effect conth the more poorly trained speaker of English will show numerb-adverb combinations of a colloquial or slangy character. And it esting to note that the two main objections to many of these bear he entire history of the development of the verb-adverb combinaThe one objection is that the oft-repeated figurative use of a comshows the same poor taste, the same giving prominence to that s striking or fantastic, which, in the matter of dress, the wearing gaudy colors might. This is, of course, the objection of the more

conservative mind, and while it serves to keep usage more stable from generation to generation it must always find itself overridden in certain instances because the figurative use of an expression may become so common that it is no longer regarded as figurative, and the original literal connotation may even be lost sight of altogether. So when Mark Antony is made to say, in his oft-quoted funeral oration for Caesar:

but were I Brutus,

And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony
Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue

In every wound of Caesar, that should move
The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny.5

no one, surely, is displeased with the phrase ruffle up because of any tantalizing suggestion in it of a present literal meaning, for its figurative meaning 'to destroy the calm of' is frequently met with.

Sometimes the independent development of the literal and the figurative uses of a combination has produced two decidedly different meanings. So fall down, used literally, means 'to prostrate oneself,' but figuratively, 'to lessen,' only; give in means 'to hand in,' but also 'to submit or yield'; give out is, literally, 'to give outward,' but figuratively 'to fail'; hold up may mean 'to support' and also 'to rob.'

Indeed, it is the existence at the same time of the literal and the figurative meanings which makes possible many of the puns and plays upon words which are so common in the current newspapers and magazines, and which tends to deter the thoughtful speaker from adopting the figurative expression.

The second objection, one which is founded upon a feeling for the logical in speech rather than upon the mere question of good taste in speech-usage, is directed at the use of redundant, or seemingly redundant, prepositional-adverbs. But even this objection is not strong enough to do away with all unnecessary particles, for while deliver up and devour up of the King James Bible are not often used today, and while the careful speaker of modern English avoids the colloquial beat up, bunk up, meet up, etc., yet such redundancies as bow down, fill up, hatch out, leaf out, have become so well entrenched in the language that one scarcely thinks it possible to use them otherwise.

See Shakespeare's Julius Cæsar, Act III, Sc. ii.

Such as the following:

"Do you think you will ever own a car?"

"Why not? The controlling circumstances are bound to meet."
"What do you mean?"

"Autos keep coming down and I keep saving up."

SECTION III. VALUES OF THE VARIOUS ADVERBIAL PARTICLES

As I have already stated, in the present study I have included only those combinations which are formed with the sixteen prepositionaladverbs about, across, around (or round), at, by, down, for, in, off, on, out, over, thru, to, up and with. While, in many of the combinations, these particles retain the meanings ordinarily possessed as prepositions or adverbs, at times the value of the particle differs in combination with the verb from the value which it has as a separate preposition or adverb. And more rarely the particle is so merged with the verb that it seems no longer to have an independent value.

About, across, around (or round), at, by, thru and with have, as a rule, about the same meanings in combination that they possess as prepositions. This is true of get about, knock about 'to wander about,' lay by 'to save or hoard,' put by 'to lay aside or reserve,' stand by 'to back or support,' get across 'to succeed,' bring around to resuscitate,' come round ‘to yield,' come at 'to reach or gain,' get at 'to reach,' look at 'to view,' carry thru 'to complete successfully,' fall thru 'to fail,' look thru 'to examine or inspect,' pull thru 'to survive,' go with 'to accompany.' So little, indeed, does the value of these differ from that of the prepositions that about the only justification that one might have for listing some of these as verbadverb combinations is a certain feeling for closeness between verb and particle as in stand by or look thru, a very uncertain standard by which to select, or else the fact that in such cases as fall thru 'fail' and go with 'accompany,' a single, simple verb can be substituted for the combination.

In the for-combinations done for 'tired out, dead,' go for 'attack,' stand for 'tolerate or permit,' the value of the adverb is rather obscure and in these combinations is well illustrated the one tendency of the verbadverb combination to swallow up the particle in a derived special meaning. In combination down has two main values. In the more frequently literal combinations such as bed down (a horse), burn down, cut down, get down, kneel down, nail down, ring down (a curtain), stoop down, the particle has a purely directional force. The same value is manifest in numerous combinations with a transferred use such as back down to recede downward from a position,' cipher down (in a contest), cut down 'to diminish,' hand down 'to leave to one's heirs,' lay down 'to make (a law),' pay down (money), spell down (in a contest), turn down to reject,' etc. Frequently, however, down implies a diminution or complete cessation of a state or action as in calm down, cool down, live down (a disgrace), nar

'to reprimand,' talk down, and wear down it is difficult to determine whether a faint sense of downward motion is suggested, as in the case of spell down, where the contestant sits down after his failure, or whether merely the idea of diminution or cessation is contained in the verb-adverb combination. For one can never be entirely certain that a fairly clear-cut figure of speech doesn't still lurk in a seemingly prosaic, often-used verbadverb combination. To illustrate a little more fully, run down, meaning 'to trace successfully,' may recall the details of the chase with the quarry brought to earth, salt down may suggest only a culinary process in general or it may suggest placing pickles or meat down in a barrel, or even down in a cellar, tame down may bring to mind a rearing horse or other animal, and write down, while it usually implies merely dictation, probably with some people recalls a teacher standing above the writer, dictating words or

sentences.

The particle in, as it is used in the verb-adverb combination, has various shades of meaning altho most of its uses imply penetration from surrounding conditions or circumstances. In cave in, come in, fall in (to a hole), fill in (a ditch), shut in, the ordinary literal value of the preposition is illustrated and the combination is so loose as to be little more than a verb with its adverbial modifier. Other combinations such as bid in, buy in, call in (bonds, etc.), hand in, muster in, take in, imply a bringing from circumference to center, so to speak, while others, like blow in 'to spend (money),' chime in 'to join in the conversation,' chip in 'to contribute,' lay in 'to make provision of,' pay in, turn in 'to return (tickets, etc.),' suggest action looking toward a common center or recipient. And, finally, numerous others suggest various phases of meaning which can be most clearly seen by the simple expedient of supplying a logical object for the prepositional particle. So break in implies 'to break into harness,' drop in, 'to drop into a room or home,' dig in 'to dig into a pile of work,' give in 'to give into some one's hands,' set in 'to set in motion,' etc. As a group, the in-combinations are more likely to be figurative, perhaps because the particle has not developed any very appreciable specialized meaning in combination as some of the other particles, notably down, out, up, have done.

The adverb off contributes several phases of meaning to the verbadverb combination. Naturally, and often literally, it is used to show separation or departure as in bite off, break off, chip off, curtain off, cut off, fight off, give off, head off, hold off, knock off to cease work,' lay off 'to dismiss (workmen),' make off 'to depart,' shut off, tear off, warn off, etc. It expresses relief or release in beg off, cool off, fire off (a gun), get off (a joke), go off 'to explode,' let off 'to release,' etc. It shows riddance or extermination in auction off, buy off, call off to revoke,' die off, drop off 'to