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side, in spite of many costly experiments, was able to advance its position sufficiently to gain any strategic advantage, but not a day passed without either assault or cannonade on some part of the long line. The "battle" of the Aisne became a "campaign" and finally a "siege"; the trenches were elaborated from mere ditches into fortifications and winter encampments; the superiority in numbers and munitionment passed from the hands of the Germans to the Allies, but all these changes made no change in the war map. The spring drive planned by the French and British was postponed till July because of the earlier German assault on the fortified city of Verdun, which required all the resources of the western Allies to repel.

During the first two weeks of July the British and French acting in concert had forced back the German line on both sides of the Somme for an average distance of nearly four miles, but their progress was much slower after the Germans rallied their reserves to halt the advance. The Allies strove not only to push the German line farther to the rear but to widen the zone of battle as well. To effect this purpose, the British hammered constantly at the German entrenchments around Thiepval in the valley of the Ancre, while the French bent the German line south and east near Soyécourt. But in spite of every effort winter found the British and French still short of the two towns, Bapaume and Peronne, which had been the objectives of the advance along the Somme. During the campaign in the Ancre valley the British introduced for the first time the use of "tanks," or armored automobiles carried on caterpillar tractors.

In the spring of 1917 the German military authorities decided that they could no longer afford to maintain their old positions in the face of another Allied drive. With skill and secrecy the German forces were withdrawn to a shorter and better located line of entrenchments running just west of St. Quentin, La Fere and Laon. While retreating the Germans so thoroly devastated the country that the Allies could not for many days occupy all the posi

SOME OF THE PROMINENT MEN DISPLACED DURING THE WAR MONARCHS

Pope Pius X (died) Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary (died)

Carol I of Rumania (died) President Yuan Shih-Kai of China (died)

Nicholas II of Russia (deposed)
Constantine of Greece (deposed)
Emperor Hsuan-Tung of China (de-
posed)

Albert of Belgium (in exile)
Peter of Serbia (in exile)
Nicholas of Montenegro (in exile)
Wilhelm of Albania (in exile)

STATESMEN

Premier Asquith of Great Britain.
Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg of
Germany

Premier Briand of France
Premier Viviani of France
Premier Stürgkh of Austria (assas-
sinated)

Premier Tisza of Hungary
Premier Goremykin of Russia
Premier Stürmer of Russia
Premier Trepoff of Russia
Premier Lvoff of Russia
Foreign Minister Grey of Great Bri-
tain

Foreign Minister von Jagow of Germany

Foreign Minister Zimmermann of Germany

Foreign Minister Sazonoff of Russia Secretary of State Bryan of the United States

Minister of War Kitchener of Great Britain (died)

GENERALS

Marshal Joffre of France General Nivelle of France General French of Great Britain General von Moltke of Germany General von Kluck of Germany General Rennenkampf of Russia Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia

tions which had been abandoned and bring up their artillery and supplies for a renewal of the attack. After the British and French had dug their new entrenchments they repeated with some success their former tactics of striking at the points where the new German position joined the old. At the extreme south of the new German line the French captured Craonne, and east of Arras the British made a considerable advance and within a few days took more than thirty thousand prisoners.

RUMANIA INTERVENES August 29 1916-Rumania declares war on Austria, Rumanians enter Hungary. August 31, 1916-Turkey and Bulgaria declare war on Rumania.

October 6, 1916-Kronstadt recaptured by Austro

Hungarian forces.

October 23, 1916-Mackensen takes Constanza.
November 21, 1916-Rumanians lose Craiova.
December 6, 1916-Fall of Bucharest.

Of all the campaigns of the past year the most encouraging to the Central Powers and the most disappointing to the hopes of the Entente Allies was the four months' contest which ended in the elimination of the Kingdom of Rumania from the list of active belligerents. Rumanian intervention had ever since the beginning of the Great War been one of the main objects of diplomacy. The fact that the Rumanians of Transylvania had many grievances against their Hungarian rulers and the encouraging example of the Russian successes in Galicia induced Rumania to join the Entente Allies and begin an immediate invasion of Transylvania. The armies of Austria-Hungary were already hard pressed on the Galician, Italian and Balkan fronts, and it was expected that the intervention of Rumania, which was said to have the largest and best army in southeastern Europe, would decide the fate of the Hapsburg monarchy. By the end of August the Rumanians had overrun a large part of Transylvania and taken the important city of Kronstadt.

But at the same time that the Rumanians were spreading their conquests westward a combined force of Germans, Bulgarians and Turks entered the Dobrudja, a coast land lying between the Danube and the Black Sea, and prest northward until they had taken the railroad line which reaches the sea at Constanza. To meet this new peril, the Rumanians had to withdraw their army of invasion from Transylvania and they were soon confronted by a double attack; General von Mackensen pushing swiftly thru the Dobrudja and General von Falkenhayn leading a counter-invasion from the west. Caught between these two armies, the Rumanians only saved their army by abandoning their capital and the whole southern half of their country. Russia sent aid, but for some unexplained reason the Russian forces arrived too tardily to

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"IF YOU WANT TO WIN YOUR BATTLES, TAKE AN' WORK YOUR BLOOMIN' GUNS"

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20

March 11, 1917-Czar declares Duma adjourned. March 12, 1917-Duma declares Czar deposed. March 15, 1917-Czar abdicates throne.

It is a common saying that the Crimean War freed the serfs, the Japanese War created the Duma, and the Great War overthrew the Romanoff dynasty. In each instance the test of war showed as nothing else could do how autocratic rule had demoralized the civil government and impaired the efficiency of the army and so lent weight to the demand for reforms. The first great Russian offensive, which had swept forward to Königsberg and Cracow, ended in the loss of all Russian Poland and Courland. The second Russian offensive soon came to a standstill while Rumania was overrun and the promised aid from Russia did not arrive. The transportation system of the country became so badly entangled that munitions could not reach the trenches or foodstuffs reach the cities. Added to al: this notorious inefficiency was the rumor of treason; the pacifistic Czar and the pro-German court were generally believed, it is impossible to say how justly, to have negotiated a separate peace. Popular anger sometimes found vent, as in the assassination of the reactionary court favorite Rasputin and in the forced resignation of Premier Stürmer, but the Czar and his advisers refused to concede anything to popular clamor and finally ordered the adjournment of the Duma.

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The attempt to dismiss the Duma came at a crisis in the food situation. Hunger riots broke out in Petrograd which the troops refused to suppress. The Duma declared itself the provisional government, and the Czar promptly resigned the throne to his brother, the Grand Duke Michael. But the Grand Duke Michael refused to become Czar unless a popular plebiscite declared him Russia's choice, and so the provisional government remained republican in form. The new government imprisoned the Czar and his reactionary advisers, restored the national liberties of Finland, abolished the legal discriminations against the Jews, reformed the harsh discipline in the army, freed all the political prisoners in Siberia, and called into consultation a Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. The army not only supported this sweeping program of reform, but showed a disposition to carry the

revolution farther than the Duma desired, and, until the Socialist deputy Kerensky became Minister of War, there was real danger that military discipline would wholly disappear. Even the inspiration of early victories did not prevent some regiments from deserting ther duty when the Germans began their counter-attack. The progress of the war was further hampered by the tendency of some parts of Russia, notably Finland and the Ukraine (Little Russia), to proclaim their virtual independence from effective control by the Petrograd government.

THE THIRD RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE September 8, 1916-Brusiloff halts at Halicz; culmination of second Russian offensive. July 1, 1917-Russians take Koniuchy; beginning of third offensive.

July 10, 1917-Russians occupy Halicz.
July 19, 1917-Germans begin counter-attack.

After General Brusiloff's advance in Galicia had been checked by the combined armies of Germany and AustriaHungary, the battle line of eastern Europe from Riga to the Carpathians remained unaltered and almost quiescent until the following July. The winter weather would in any case have checked military operations, but it is certain that the Russians could not have made a very vigorous drive even if the weather had been favorable, since they had largely exhausted the store of ammunition with which they began the campaign and were also hampered by the disloyalty and incompetence of the civil administration. After the deposition of the Czar the Russian revolutionists were divided into two parties on the question of prosecuting the war; some favoring a war to the end against German autocracy and others a speedy peace "without annexations or indemnities." While the Duma and the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates debated the is

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of the territory won by General Brusi- and Turkey from Germany and Ausloff during the 1916 campaign.

THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN August 9, 1916-Italians take Gorizia.

August 27, 1916 Italy declares war on Germany.

May 12, 1917-Italians make new drive on the Carso.

The campaign in the mountains of the Austrian border may be summed up by saying that the Austrians have accomplished nothing and the Italians very little. This does not mean that the struggle has been less persistent in this theater of war than in any other; fighting has been almost incessant and the losses on both sides heavy. But the difficulties of highland warfare have barred the Italians from their goal of Trieste, and in the Trentino the opposing armies appear to be practically deadlocked. The Italians have succeeded, however, in taking Gorizia, in occupying the whole Isonzo valley to the south of this city, and in advancing their trenches on the Carso plateau.

It must be remembered in recording the slow progress of the Italian army against Austria that during the past year Italy has diverted many soldiers to join the Allies in Macedonia. The Italians have taken an active part in Grecian affairs, established a protector

ate in Albania and undertaken to

a

great extent the policing of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. The Ital

ian commission in the United States re

ported a great development of muni

tions manufacture.

THE WAR IN THE BALKANS August 16, 1916-French take positions on the Serbian border.

August 27, 1916-Bulgarians occupy Kavala.

tria-Hungary. To effect this purpose they occupied the Greek city of Salonica and gathered there one of the most heterogeneous armies that the world has ever seen. Nearly all of the Allies had contingents on the Salonica front, but the bulk of the army was English, French, Italian and Serbian. During the summer and autumn of 1916 the Allies fought their way to the northern boundary of Greece and the central part of Albania and at last captured the important city of Monastir on the Serbian side of the frontier. In the meantime the Bulgarians occupied the city of Kavala in the extreme northeastern corner of Greece and expelled the Greek garrison. On the whole, the Salonica campaign was a disappointment, since the measure of success it achieved was not proportionate to the size of the army which was withdrawn from other fronts in the expectation of important victories in the Balkan theater of war. Italy has declared a protectorate over Albania and effectively southern and western occupied the

parts of the country.

While Greece was furnishing a battleground for the contending powers, it was also torn by civil war. The partizans of the Cretan statesman Venizelos fought on the side of the Allies at every opportunity in spite of the official neutrality of King Constantine and his secretly pro-German sympathies. In order to revent the Greek King from extending aid to the Central Powers, the Allies acted in the most arbitrary

September 27, 1916-Venizelos begins revolutionary fashion, commandeering ships, blocking

movement in Crete.

October 11, 1916-Allies take over Greek fleet.
November 19, 1916-Monastir reoccupied.
June 12, 1917-King Constantine deposed.

Altho Greece and Albania were neutral countries, they were the theater of the principal campaign in the Balkans after the withdrawal of the British expedition against Gallipoli and the conquest of Serbia and Montenegro by the Central Powers. The object of the Entente Allies was to regain Serbia and Montenegro and thus sever Bulgaria

ports, occupying garrison towns, supporting the Venizelos revolution, and finally deposing King Constantine in favor of his son Alexander. When King Alexander ascended the throne he made Venizelos again premier and broke off diplomatic relations with the Central

Powers.

THE TURKISH CAMPAIGN February 26. 1917-British take Kut-el-Amara March 6, 1917-British reach southern boundary of Palestine. March 11, 1917-Bagdad falls.

April 5, 1917-Russians and British effect junction in Mesopotamia.

The vast outlying territories of Asiatic Turkey are the weakest part of the military system of the Central Powers. They are the farthest from Prussia, the heart and soul of the alliance, of all the lands dominated by German arms; they are miserably defective in the means of rapid transformation, and with few exceptions their inhabitants are disloyal to their Ottoman rulers. It is then small cause for wonder that much of this region has fallen into the hands of the Allied nations. Rather should we be surprized that the Russians and the British have not been able to penetrate yet farther into the interior of the Turkish domains.

The British have accomplished rather more. They retrieved their defeat of the previous year at Kut-el-Amara by recapturing the city and continuing their advance thru Mesopotamia to Bagdad. In the west they repulsed a Turkish demonstration against the Suez Canal and organized a counteroffensive which followed the historic route of Moses and the Children of Israel from Egypt to the borders of Palestine. Like Moses, however, they seem to be fated to behold the Holy Land without being able to occupy it. The Arabs have fallen away from Turkish rule altogether and have organized the independent Kingdom of Hejaz under the protection of the British.

On the first day of 1917 the Turkish Government, with German sanction it may be supposed, repudiated all treaties and agreements with Christian powers by which the Ottoman Empire was subject to the supervision of the "concert of Europe." This action places Turkey on an equal diplomatic footing with other members of the society of nations and is probably the only gain that the Ottomans can expect from the war even in the case of a German triumph. If the Entente Allies win the war they are pledged to the liberation of the non-Turkish peoples of the Otto

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For more than two and a half years the warring armies of Europe fought without knowing what measure of achievement would be considered a "victory" by the governments whose interests they served. Any number of informal and unofficial peace programs were set forth in the public press of England, Germany, France and other countries, but the statesmen who alone could speak with authority confined themselves to generalities which might serve to arouse but never to satisfy speculation. In December, 1916, the German Government offered to discuss peace with the Entente Allies, and President Wilson suggested to both groups of belligerents that the time had come for an interchange of views

and that if terms of peace were formulated the aims of the two hostile groups of nations might not be found to differ so greatly as had been supposed. The Entente Allies refused to entertain the German suggestion of a peace conference, but they agreed upon a joint reply to President Wilson in which they stated the objects for which they were continuing the war.

The Allies' demands comprized the abandonment by the Central Powers of all their conquests during the present war with indemnities to the invaded nations; the restoration of "provinces or territories wrested in the past from the Allies"; the liberation of Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians, and of CzechoSlovaks"; the "enfranchisement of populations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turks"; the reunion of Poland, and the expulsion of the Ottoman Empire from Europe. These terms apparently still stand as the peace platform of the Allied nations and to them must be added the surrender of German overseas colonies which, altho not mentioned in the note, seems to be demanded by public opinion in Japan, South Africa and Australia.

should be guaranteed and every nation given free commercial access to the sea, and that all nations should unite into a league for their common security. These suggestions were at the time unfavorably received by both sides, altho they have found a reflection in the formula of "peace without annexation or indemnities" adopted by the Council of Russian Workmen and Soldiers Delegates after the revolution and by the Social Democratic Party in Germany. By a coalition with members of the Center (Clerical) and the Radical parties the Socialists secured from the Reichstag a declaration which, in general terms, affirmed the idea of an early peace based on the map of 1914 and repudiated all suggestions of an economic "war after the war." Because the Reichstag delayed the vote on the war credits, the Kaiser was forced to remove from office Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg, who had held office thruout the war. The new Chancellor, Georg Michaelis, refused to promise the introduction of parliamentary government or to make any definite offer of peace.

THE AMERICAN INTERVENTION January 31, 1917-Germany declares new barred zone in European waters and inaugurates ruthless submarine campaign.

from Washington.

On January 22 President Wilson addrest the American Senate and outlined his views of the basis of a just February 3, 1917-Ambassador Bernstorff dismissed peace. He believed that peace should come by common consent, not by victory; that the rights of nationalities to self-government should receive recognition; that the freedom of the seas

February 26, 1917-President asks Congress for authority to protect merchant ships. March 4, 1917-Congress adjourns without taking action.

April 2, 1917-President asks Congress for a declaration of war against Germany. April 4, 1917-Senate declares war.

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This diagrammatic view of British soldiers attacking under cover of barrage fire shows four stages of the advance, tho of course in actual attack it is uninterrupted, the men following just after the "monstrous moving carapace of metal." As a British soldier describes it: "As soon as our men left the trenches our gunners laid down a barrage in front of them and made a moving wall of shells ahead of them, a frightful thing to follow, but the safest. It was a wonderfully scientific barrage that dropt in front of the advancing English battalion; it curtained the ground we were sweeping over, and it countered the waiting German batteries beyond the ridge"

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