Greece. Solon or Hipparchus is said to have made the arrangement that they should be recited at the Panathenæa, in turn, by the rhapsodists. The writing of them is of a later age. At the time of Socrates, they were used for the instruction of youth. A little after, many scholars were occupied with the critical arrangement of the text ;* the six oldest recensions were called after towns; a seventh is said to have been planned by Antimachus of Colophon; and an eighth, which seems to have agreed with our present one, by Aristotle. These versions were followed by the revisions of the Alexandrian critics, Zenodotus, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Crates and Aristarchus; those of the latter we possess completely, and the division of every epopee into twenty-four rhapsodies, is ascribed to him.

Many poets followed the example of Homer in his choice of the epic model, the materiel for which was borrowed, sometimes from the most ancient times, and sometimes from later ages, until the return of Ulysses. By this means arose the epic representations of the combats of the Titans, of the excursion of the Argonauts, of the Dyonisiaca, of Hercules, of Theseus, of the Thebanic contests, &c. These Cyclic poetst are, for the most part, known to us only by name, and we judge of their works somewhat from their imitations and alterations in the fifth century after Christ.

These poets prepared the transition to history, and disappeared after (500 B.C.) when the latter began to be cultivated. There were besides many other ancient epic poets, of whom we know nothing but their names. Fragments have been preserved of epic songs of Epimenides from Crete, (Olym. 46); of the Heraclea of Panyasis, (Olym. 79) and the greatest part of the Thebaids and elegies of Antimachus of Colophon, (Olym. 94.) To the epic canon of the Alexandrian critics, Aristophanes and Aristarchus, belong Homer, Hesiod, Pisander, Panyasis and Antimachus.

The Eolic epopee, known by the name of Hesiod of Cumæ, in Eolia, whence he went to Asera in Boeotia, probably a contemporary of Homer, was partly connected with the old temple poetry, and partly embraced the occupations of calm, domestic life; in national esteem and fame, it ranked far behind the Homeric. The compilation of the substance of

* D. G. Heyne ad Iliadem, t. viii. p. 770.

Fabr. Bib. Gr. vol. i. p. 376. Virgilius Heynii, vol. ii. p. 267. Heyne Comment. ad Apollod. p. xxx.

‡ Asius, Eumelus, Pisander, (Olym. 33) Aristeus, (Olym. 55) and others.

various authors, is conspicuous in his poems. From this Hesiodic bard school, we have received, I. Moral precepts of life and economy, (ɛgya xas nuégai) in which many old epic and gnomic fragments are visibly united into one whole. II. Theogony, a composition of remarkable fragments on the Gods, the world and heroes of various ages. III. Fragments of epic tales concerning famous men and women of the heroic age, the most important of which is the shield of Hercules.

When liberty first arose, the excited feelings of individuals were expressed in poems of peculiar energy. The pentameter approached to the hexameter, and with the distichon of the first lyric strophe arose the Ionic elegy,* smoothing the transition to the lyric; it treated of external circumstances, common welfare and dangers, enjoyment of life or the doctrines of morality; and, consequently, appeared under various forms, sometimes martial and politic, sometimes erotic, and sometimes didactic; in later ages it assumed, under the Athenian Simonides, a tone of lamentation. Connected with it is the epigram, which has since been cultivated with more success than any other kind of poetry. On account of their sententious character, the elegiac poets were styled Gnomics. Callinus of Ephesus, (715 B.C?) seems to have introduced the martial elegy. Tyrtæus (647) composed excellent war-songs, which affect the mind wonderfully by the combination of deep energy with sweet harmony. Five of these songs, together with some fragments, have come down to us. Mimnermus of Colophon, (600) distinguished himself by insinuating softness and mildness. Many fragments, breathing ardent patriotism and love of war, and distinguished by their high tone of moral nobleness, have been preserved of the writings of Solon, (594.) These are composed partly in iambics. Under the name of Theognis of Megara, (550?) we possess an elegiac-gnomic collection of poems of many authors in various ages. We have very few fragments of Phocylides of Milesia, (550.)

Simonides of Cos, (469) the friend of Hipparchus, composed elegiac songs of mourning, praised fallen heroes, comforted in adversities, and sang patriotic odes.

One of the effects of civil liberty was the public censure of human faults, follies and vices. For this purpose they made use of the iambic, a very ancient rhythmus, suitable to the style of practical life, and favouring by its fixed rules, the approach to the strophic verses. The strict iambic poets who have been included in the Alexandrian canon, were three; Archilochus

* Mem. de l'Acad. des inscrip. vol. vi. p. 277. Ibid. vol. vii. p. 352.

of Paros, (715) renowned among the ancients for the varying and contradictory traditions respecting him, who enjoyed equal esteem with Homer, gave the last refinement to the trochæus of the catalectic tetrameter, polished the epigram, and became the model of the Ionic lyric in hymns and scolia; 2. Simonides of Amorgos, (666) who represented in a humorous and satiric tone, the origin and qualities of women; 3. Hipponax of Ephesus, (500) a very severe and bitter satirist, and inventor of the choliambick.*

The lyric style was, at the same time, directed to the purposes of public and social life, t and was closely connected with the ancient religious poetry. In its relation to public life, it consisted of Hymns, Pæans, Proems, and Epinicinia; in private life, its themes were love and wine, social joys and enjoyments; and then it consisted of Erotica, Pædica, Parthenica, and Epithalamia. The scolia were to the lyric what the epigram was to the epopee; these table-songs consisted, for the most part, of one strophe, and Terpander of Antissa, (650) is supposed to have first introduced them; they were, probably, often composed extemporaneously. The dithyrambus,‡ a great rhythmic system, was sung by a whole circle: Arion of Methymna, (624) is said to have been its inventor; Lasus of Hermione, (500) and Ion of Chios, were famous poets of dithyrambics; but the most distinguished were Pindar and Bacchylides.

The Grecian lyric poetry may be divided into two distinct classes; the Ionic and Æolic-Doric. The Ionic lyric was playful and easy, and had rhythmic simplicity. Its model was Anacreons of Teos, (500) the friend of Polycrates of Samos, and Hipparchus of Athens; his songs combine naïve humour with easy dignity in the enjoyment of life; he praises sensual beauty, was sober and wise in conduct, and animated and drunk in songs. His elegies, iambics and drinking-songs are lost, but his epigrams still exist. The Anacreontic poems (55) which have descended to us, scarcely bear any trace of Ionism, and contain nothing that can, in any degree, correspond with the fragments cited by Strabo, Athenæus, the grammarians and scholiasts, or with the imitations of Horace; they are composed in his spirit and after his model, and are of different ages; some of them are of exquisite beauty and charming simplicity.

*Fabric. b. g. vol. ii. p. 122.

+ Ibid. p. 57. In the Alexandrian canon were included Alcman, Alcæus, Sappho, Stersichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Cos, Pindarus and Bacchylides. Timkowsky de dithyrambia eorumque usu apud Græcos et Romanos. Moskwa, Fabr. b. g. vol. ii. p. 91. VOL. VI. NO 11. 6

1806.

The Æolic-Doric lyric sprung from glowing and ardent sentiment, and the sensitive and earnest disposition of the Doric mind, carried it to perfection. It was more independent of political connexions, and expressed, in a lively and energetic style, the peculiar sentiments of individuals, in which, however, the national spirit is conspicuous. Alcman, the freed son of a Spartan slave of Lydia, (633) sang Hymns, Pæans, Hymenæa, Erotica, and Parthenica after the Doric fashion, and refined the higher lyric. He was taken as a model by the poet of dithyrambs, Arion of Methymna, (624). Alcæus of Mitylene, (600) was both valiant and gay, and, probably, the inventor of the Barbiton and the rhythmus, which is styled after him; he sang martial songs, breathing love for liberty and hatred against tyrants; hymns and Erotica.

Sappho of Mitylene, (600) is known to us by her copious, rich and deep feeling in two odes and some fragments. From Erinna or Melinus of Lesbos, we possess an excellent ode on strength, and some fragments. Of the warlike Stersichorus, (556) we possess only fragments. In the circle of Corinna, Myron, Lasus, and many other distinguished singers, Pindar of Thebes, was seen to arise with heavenly power (424); he was the interpreter of the divine and sacred tales of the people, and his really prophetic visions, presumptions and reflections which made a solemn impression upon the hearts of his contemporaries, will be esteemed even in more refined ages. There remain of him, forty-five hymns on victory, which latter grammarians have divided into Olympic, Pythic, Nemæsian and Isthmian, and fragments of odes, hymns and dithyrambs. Some excellent fragments have been preserved of Bacchylides of Iulis, (450.)

The drama developed itself from the epopee and lyric. The dithyrambic chorus at the Dionysia, joined with dance and music, prepared its invention; dithyrambic singing-schools had been established by Arion at Corinth, and similar institutions might have existed at Athens; they seem-to personify Silenus and his suite of satyrs-to have been clothed in buckskins; hence, or perhaps, because a buck was the prize of the victor in contentions, the name, tragedy. The practice of interrupting the chorus by a monologue, referring to the solemnity of the day and to practical life, was of an early date. Thespis (594) seems to have been the founder of the epic monologue; its merry raillery was soon exchanged for more serious matter, and thus, from the original, satiric drama, arose a mytholo

H. Grotii excerpta ex tragæd. et comæd. Græcor. Theatre des Grecs par Brumoy, iii, iv. pp. 6, 12.

gical, heroic play, or the tragedy, which was refined by Phrynicus, (509.) But public taste brought back the satiric drama. Pratinas of Phlius, (500) artfully cultivated it, and it found its place near the tragedy, and thus arose the Tetralogy. At the time of Thespis, Susarion had formed the comedy of the phallic chorus, and roved with it about the country; it soon found a welcome reception at Athens, and the Syracusan Epicharmus, gave it (486) a better shape. The Mimic received its last perfection from Sophron, (431) at Syracuse.

The tragedy was elevated to a poetical art by Æschylust of Eleusis, (1. 490; b. ol. 63, 3; d. ol. 81.) He converted the monologue into a dialogue, and ennobled the exterior of the representation; the matter of the simple action was, for the most part, borrowed from the mythological epic ages; the characters are ideally, the language and representation majestically lyric, and the chorus predominant. Of seventy-five tragedies, only seven have been preserved; of his satiric plays, none. Sophocles of Athens, (1. 499; b. Ol. 71,2; d. Ol. 93, 3) the disciple and rival of Eschylus, introduced a third performer into the tragedy, limited the religious chorus, and charmed the spectators by the moral effect of his representations, the lively truth of his characters, and the great dignity of the action. His style is most simple and admirably lively. Of more than a hundred tragedies, we only possess seven. A fragment of Clytemnestra, published by C. F. Matthaei, (Moskwa, 1805) is proved to be false. Euripides of Salamin, (1. 440; b. Ol. 75, 1; d. Ol. 93, 3) the disciple of Anaxagoras, and friend of Socrates, and who, in his latter days, was pensioned by the Macedonian court, knew well the human, and especially the female heart, strove after moral effect, was prolix from his rhetorical style, and kept the chorus in too little combination with the action. Of his seventy-five tragedies, we only know nineteen, and many fragments, of which, the commencement of Danae (Class. Jour." Sep. 1820, p. 156, with remarks of Burgess,) and 120 v. of Phaethon, are the most remarkable. (Compare also Edinburgh Review, xix. p. 64.)

The satiric drama, resembling real life on account of its mixture of seriousness with merriness, was very popular with the people, and was cultivated by many of the most distinguished dramatic poets. Only the Cyclops of Euripides has been pieserved completely.

* Hermann de tragica et epica poesi; to the Alexandrian canon of tragedians belong, Eschylus, Ion, Achaios, Sophocles and Euripides. Comp. Fabr. b. g. p. 279. + Ibid. p. 164, Voss: curarum Æsch. spec.