complete sets of accoutrements for infantry and cavalry, 539,544 complete sets of cavalry-horse equipments, 28,164 sets of horse-artillery harness, 1,022,176,474 cartridges for small-arms, 1,220,555,435 percussion caps, 2,862,177 rounds of fixed artillery ammunition, 14,507,682 cannon primers and fuses, 12,875,294 pounds of artillery projectiles, 26,440,054 pounds of gunpowder, 6,395,152 pounds of nitre, and 90,416,295 pounds of lead. In addition to these, there were immense quantities of parts provided for repairing and making good articles damaged, lost, or destroyed in the service. The fiscal resources of the Ordnance Bureau for the year amounted to $35,301,062.56, and the expenditures to $16,551,677.58, leaving a balance of $18,749,385.18, of which $18,043,804.28 were undrawn balances in the Treasury, and $705,580.90 were to the credit of disbursing officers in the Government depositories on June 30, 1866. The estimated appropriation required by the Ordnance Office, including only such objects as require early attention, is $1,593,242.

The experience acquired in the late war with respect to the most available pattern of smallarms, applicable for general use in the Army, was wholly in favor of breech-loading arms, as opposed to the old muzzle-loaders; and early in 1866 a board of officers was appointed to examine the following questions, and make recommendations thereon:

1. What form and calibre of breech-loading arm should be adopted as a model for future construction of muskets for infantry?

2. What form and calibre should be adopted as a model for future construction of carbines for cavalry?

8. What form of breech-loading arm should be adopted as a model for changes of muskets already constructed to breech-loading muskets?

The board met on March 10th, and, during the next two months and a half, carefully tested over sixty different rifles and muskets, no one of which, it was decided, ought to be recommended for adoption by the Government. This conclusion was arrived at chiefly in view of the large number of excellent muzzle-loading muskets already in store, and of the comparatively slight changes necessary to transform these into effective breech-loaders. The plan of alteration submitted by Colonel H. Berdan was therefore recommended. This gives the stable breechpin, secures the piece against premature discharge, and involves only a slight change of our present pattern of arms. The change of machinery necessary to make new arms on this plan is also so slight, that the board is of opinion that there can be no justification of an entire change of model, and the great expense thereby entailed, until some further improvement shall be devised, producing more decided advantages than any of the arms yet presented. They also find that the 45-inch-calibre ball has given the best results as to accuracy, penetration, and range, and recommend that all riflemuskets and single-loading carbines used in military service, be fitted for the same cartridge.

The board is disposed to arm the cavalry with the magazine carbine; but as this arm is doubtless capable of further improvements, delay is recommended in adopting definitively any pattern for future construction. Should new carbines be previously needed, it is recommended that the Spencer carbine be used. General Dyer, Chief of Ordnance, through whom the report of the board was directed to be made, objected to the use of the 45-inch-calibre balls, on the ground that they had not been proved superior to those of 50-inch calibre, and that the Army is already furnished with a large number of the latter. He also recommended that the different plans for the alteration of the Springfield musket should first be tried in the hands of troops. In forwarding the report to the War Department, General Grant indorsed his first recommendation, but not his second. The conversion of the old Springfield muskets into breech-loaders, proposed by the board, was approved by the Department, and orders were at once given for the preparation of the necessary machinery. The work proceeded so rapidly, that at the close of the year enough breech-loaders were on hand to supply the cavalry and mounted and light infantry. As an offensive arm, this altered musket is much better in all respects than the much-vaunted Prussian needle-gun, whose achievements have inaugurated so remarkable a change in modern warfare. In the Springfield armory two sets of workmen, alternating day and night, as during the war, are now employed in altering the old muskets to breechloaders.

During 1866, the power and endurance of the 8-inch and 12-inch cast-iron rifle-cannon have also been subjected to practical tests, and the experiments will be continued. The ordnance returns for three consecutive years, including a period of active service and ordinary repairs, show an average duration of five years for cavalry carbines, of four years for cavalry pistols, sabres, and accoutrements, of seven years for infantry muskets, and of six years for infantry

accoutrements.

During the last five years considerable changes have been made and are still making in the armament of the permanent defensive works of the country, by substituting cannon of larger calibre and wrought-iron carriages for the lighter guns and wooden gun-carriages formerly in use. Construction has been suspended upon some of the unfinished works, pending the completion of experiments having in view the use of iron shields or armor for the protection of guns and gunners.

Finally, in view of any possible emergency, the Secretary of War reports that the "stock of clothing, equipage, quartermaster, subsistence, hospital, and ordnance stores, arms, ammunition, and field artillery is sufficient for the immediate equipment of large armies. The disbanded troops stand ready to respond to the national call, and, with our vast means of transportation and rapid organizatioz developed dur

ing the war, they can be organized, armed, equipped, and concentrated at whatever point military emergency may require. While, therefore, the war expenses have been reduced to the footing of a moderate and economical peace establishment, the national military strength remains unimpaired and in condition to be. promptly put forth."

The Military Academy at West Point is now separated from the Engineer Corps, of which it formerly constituted a part. The standard of qualifications for admission has been raised, and appointments to cadetships must hereafter be made a year previous to the date of admission. The report of the Board of Visitors for 1866 shows that the examinations have been creditably conducted, and that the discipline of the Academy is good. The board recommend that the number of cadets be increased from two hundred and ninety-two to four hundred; that the cadets, on graduation, be required to serve at least two years in regiments of the line before entering the Engineer or other staff corps of the Army; and that the standard of qualification be raised by some form of competitive examination. At the last examination the corps of cadets numbered 228, and a class of 40 was graduated.

The act of July 28, 1866, authorized the President, "for the purpose of promoting knowledge of military science among the young men of the United States," to detail officers of experience to act as professors in institutions of learning having upward of 150 male students. It does not appear from the Secretary of War's report that application has yet been made by any college or university for the services of such officers. Provision is also made in the act of July 28th for the instruction of enlisted men at any post, garrison, or permanent camp, in the common English branches of education, and especially in the history of the United States. Another section directs that " a code of regulations for the government of the Army, and of the militia in actual service, which shall embrace all necessary orders and forms of a general character for the performance of all duties incumbent upon officers and men in the military service, including rules for the government of courts-martial," shall be prepared and presented to the Thirty-ninth Congress at its second session.

By direction of the Secretary of War, a board of officers, consisting of Brevet Colonel H. B. Clitz, 6th U. S. Infantry; Brevet Major-General R. B. Ayres, 28th U. S. Infantry; Brevet Colonel H. M. Blach, 7th U. S. Infantry; Captain J. J. Van Horn, 8th U. S. Infantry, Recorder, was assembled at West Point, N. Y., on the 25th of June, for the purpose of recommending such changes in authorized infantry tactics as shall make them simple and complete, or the adoption of any new system that may be presented to it, if such change be deemed advisable.

The board was to examine and report on

any system of infantry tactics that might be presented to it, and the superintendent of the Military Academy was to give it facilities for testing with the battalion of cadets the value of any system. Besides the system of General Casey, necessarily before the board, two others were presented: one by Brigadier-General Wm. H. Morris, late U. S. Volunteers; the other by Brevet Major-General Emory Upton, U. S. Army. The system prepared by General Upton is entirely new, and substitutes wheeling by fours for the facings of other tactics. Among the features that distinguish it from all other systems are, that it simplifies all the movements, and requires less instruction on the part of enlisted men; that it ignores inversions, gives greatly increased mobility to large bodies of troops, doubles the number of ways of passing troops from the order in column to the order in battle, and presents always the front rank in front; that it is equally adapted to wooded and open country; that it presents a new formation for infantry in single rank-a formation eminently adapted to the intelligence of the American soldier, and to breech-loading fire-arms, fast being introduced into all armies; that it enables a skirmish line to be promptly doubled, either for offensive or defensive purposes. The system embraces complete instruction for the soldier, skirmishers, battalion, brigade, division, and corps, and is in one volume, containing about one-half the number of pages in the three volumes of the present system.

General Casey's, or the authorized system, which was before the board, is based upon the French tactics, or is almost literally a copy of them. A modification of this was offered by General Morris; but they reported favorably upon the above system of General Upton, and, by the order of the President, it has become the authorized tactics for the Army and the militia.

ASIA. The progress of the Russians in Central Asia continued without interruption, and another important tract of land in Independent Toorkistan, with the large cities of Tashkend and Khojend, was annexed. The detailed accounts of the Russian operations widely differed, as they were received either from Russian or British sources, but the annexation of the above two cities, with a large territory, seems to be the permanent result of the year 1866. The tribes of Central Asia were again reported to have invoked British aid against Russia. (See RUSSIA.)

In China, rebel movements disturbed the peace of the empire throughout the whole year, and in the latter months the Mohammedan rebels were reported to be in possession of the whole province of Kansuh. Piracy in the Chinese waters continued to make the greatest ravages upon commercial vessels, and the joint operations of the Chinese and British fleets were unable to subdue it. The relations of China tc foreign powers remained friendly, and a new port was opened in the northern part of the

empire. In the Corea, a dependency of China, two French bishops and seven priests were massacred-an outrage which led to a French expedition against that country. The Chinese Government repudiated all responsibility for the action of the Coreans, and made no objection to the French expedition. (See CHINA and COREA.)

The relation of Japan to foreigners becomes more and more friendly. The treaties concluded with the chief foreign nations remained in force, and further provisions in favor of foreign commerce were secured by a new treaty concluded between American, English, French, Dutch, and Japanese plenipotentiaries on June 25th. A civil war broke out between the Tycoon and one of the princes, before the termination of which the Tycoon died. (See JAPAN.)

British India remained free from disturbances, the difficulty with Bhootan being fully settled in February. But the country suffered from a terrible famine, which carried off a very large number of people. On the western border of India civil broils continued in Affghanistan throughout the year, and in Farther India a revolution broke out in Burmah, which, however, was unsuccessful. (See INDIA and Burmah.)

The "Geographical Year-book" of Dr. Brehm for1866 (Geographisches Jahrbuch, Gotha, 1866, pp. 53 to 70) gives the following statements on the area and population of the several territories of Asia:

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. The march of astronomical discovery during the year 1866 has not lagged behind that of the other great departments of science. To chemistry, astronomy is especially indebted; for there is scarcely a discovery made in the domain of the former science which does not, or may not, contribute to the solution of some of the enigmas which still abound in the latter. The spectrum analysis, the original function of which was to determine the presence or absence of the earthy elements in the chemist's laboratory, is now the familiar guest of the astronomer in his watchings through the night, and discloses to him what all his *One geographical square mile equal to 21.21 English

square miles.

improved telescopes had hitherto not availed to show, the constitution of the sun, and the stars, and the comets, and enables him even to hazard a guess at the material nature of the far-away nebulæ. The application of this new and powerful instrument to astronomical investigation has given rise to many brilliant speculations, which may have to be discarded hereafter, but it has also added many facts to our knowledge of the heavenly bodies. Just in proportion as the spectrum apparatus is improved from year to year-and there can be no doubt that improvements will continue to be made indefinitely in a field of inquiry so practical-the burden of mystery which rests upon astronomy will be lifted; and so we may go on from one discovery to another, until the splendid thought uttered by Mr. Grove, in his address at the last annual meeting of the British Association, may be realized. He said: "We, this evening assembled, ephemera that we are, have learned by transmitted labor, to weigh as in a balance other worlds larger and heavier than our own, to know the length of their days and years, to measure their enormous distance from us and from each other, to detect and accurately ascertain the influence they have on the movements of our world and on each other, and to discover the substances of which they are composed. May we not fairly hope that similar methods of research to those which have taught us so much, may give our race further information, until problems relating not only to remote worlds, but possibly to organic and sentient beings which may inhabit them; problems, which it might now seem wildly visionary to enunciate, may be solved by progressive improvements in the modes of applying observation and experiment, induction and deduction?"

The public interest in astronomy has been more than usually stimulated this year by the occurrence of two wonderful phenomena: the sudden apparition and disappearance of a star, perhaps not inferior in size and splendor to our own sun; and the great meteoric shower of November (see METEORS). Events of this kind have a favorable effect upon the science of astronomy, because they tend to popularize it, and to make the great body of the people more willing to contribute the necessary funds for the erection and support of first-class astronomical observatories. It is not improbable that, before many years, every important city in the Union will have an observatory equal to that recently established by the liberality of the citizens of Chicago.

The Temporary or Variable Star in Corona. -The most remarkable astronomical event of the year was the appearance of a temporary or variable star in the constellation of the Crown, less than a degree distant from & Coronæ in a S. E. direction. It was seen at the Washington Observatory on the night of May 12th, when its size was that of a star of the 2d magnitude. Its lustre was a pure soft white. On the fol

lowing night it had apparently sunk from the 2d to the 3d magnitude. On the night of the 14th of May it was studied at the Cambridge Observatory, and was then reported to be of about the 3d magnitude. By the 19th its brilliancy had decreased by nearly two magnitudes, and it was then very near the limit of visibility to the naked eye. On the 20th it was no longer perceptible to the unaided vision, but could easily be seen through an opera-glass. The star had dwindled to the 9th magnitude by the 9th of June. The following was the table of magnitudes as estimated by Mr. B. A. Gould, of Cambridge (American Journal of Science, xlii., 124):

the gas consisted chiefly of hydrogen. Observations were also taken on several successive evenings, during which the continuous spectrum diminished in brightness more rapidly than the gaseous spectrum. Messrs. Huggins and Miller suggest, as their explanation of these brilliant phenomena, that, in consequence of some vast convulsion, larger quantities of gas were evolved from the star, that the hydrogen present was burning in combination with some other elements, and that the flaming gas had heated to vivid incandescence the solid matter of the photosphere. As the hydrogen was consumed, the phenomena would diminish in intensity and the star rapidly wane. The results of the observations of Messrs. Huggins and Miller were confirmed by those of Messrs. Stone and Carpenter, at the Royal Observatory, on the night of May 19th.

Humboldt, in his "Cosmos," gives the following list of temporary stars, which are recorded in history, with variable degrees of certainty as to items:

June 9.

One observer in Philadelphia says that he saw on the 23d of September, 1865, a brilliant star in Corona, not laid down in the maps. It was reported to have been seen in London, Canada West, about May 1st, when its brilliancy was about equal to that of e Coronæ, or between the 3d and 4th degrees of magnitude. It was seen in Ireland and England on the 12th of May, and in France on the 13th. The descriptions of the star given by all the foreign observers at that time agree with those of the various observers in this country. On the 16th of May it was observed and subjected to the spectrum analysis by William Huggins, F. R. S., and W. A. Miller, Prof. of Chemistry in King's College, London, whose applications of that new power to the solution of some astronomical problems have been among the most valuable scientific results of the year. At that time the magnitude of the new star was below the 3d. In the telescope it appeared to be enveloped in a faint nebulous haze, which extended to a considerable distance and faded away at the boundary. A comparative examination of neighboring stars showed that nebularity really existed about it. Its spectrum was unlike that of any other celestial body thus far examined. The light was compound, and had apparently emanated from two sources. The principal spectrum was analogous to that of the sun, evidently formed by the light of an incandescent solid or liquid photosphere, which has suffered absorption by vapors of an envelope cooler than itself. The second spectrum consisted of a few bright lines, indicating that the light by which it was formed was emitted by matter in the state of luminous gas. To the eye the star appeared nearly white; but as it flickered there was seen an occasional preponderance of yellow or blue. The lines of the second spectrum indicated that

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in Aquilla.

in Aries.

in Ophiuchus.

in Cassiopeia.

in Scorpio.

in Cygnus.

in Ophiuchus.

in Vulpes. in Ophiuchus.

The majority of these stars shone with great splendor when first scen. Only three of the known variable stars, according to Humboldt, have been less than the 1st magnitude at the height of their brilliancy. The star of 389 a. D. was for three weeks as bright as Venus, and then rapidly disappeared from view. That of 1572 was seen at mid-day on November 11th, and no longer visible in the following March. It was as bright as Sirius, and reached the lustre of Jupiter. The star of October, 1604, also exhibited great splendor. The stars of 393, 827, 1203, and 1609, are considered one and the same; and a reappearance is predicted in 2014-5. The periods of visibility of these stars differ greatly. That of 389 was three weeks; of 827 four months; and of 1012 three months. Tycho Brahe's star in Cassiopeia (1572) shone for 17 months. Kepler's star in Cygnus was visible 21 years before it totally disappeared. It was seen again (as a star in the same position) in 1655, and was then of the 3d magnitude.

The star of 1866 appears to be identified with No. 2,765 of Argelander's zone + 26° marked

by Argelander as of 9.5 mag. In Wollaston's catalogue (1790) an object is noted upon a place which, reduced to 1866, accords with that of the variable. There is also a nebula marked on Cary's globe, which is near the spot occupied by the new star. This nebula is not on Herschel's catalogue. Sir J. Herschel, on the 9th of June, 1842, marked as visible to the naked eye a star whose place agrees so nearly with that assigned to the new variable, that he cannot help believing it to be the same.

These splendid phenomena have occurred so rarely since the time when scientific apparatus and methods were introduced into astronomical observation, that but little is known of them. The spectrum analysis, this year, has probably thrown more light upon the mystery than all previous investigations.

Eccentricity of the Earth's Orbit, and its Relations to Glacial Epochs.-Mr. James Croll has elaborated an ingenious theory in explanation of the glacial epoch, evidences of which abound on the earth's surface. The theory was originally propounded by Sir John Herschel more than 30 years ago, and may briefly be stated as follows: The mean distance of the earth from the sun being nearly invariable, it would at first be supposed that the mean annual supply of light and heat would also be invariable. Calculations show, however, that this mean annual supply would be inversely proportional to the minor axes of the orbit. This would give less heat when the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is approaching toward, or is at its minimum. Mr. Croll offers reasons for believing that the climate, at least in the circumpolar and temperate zones, would depend on whether the winter of a given region occurred when the earth, at its period of greatest eccentricity, was in aphelion or perihelion. If in its aphelion, then the annual average of temperature would be lower; if in its perihelion, the annual average of temperature would be higher than when the eccentricity was less, or approached more nearly to a circle. He then calculates the difference in the amount of heat at the period of maximum eccentricity to be as 19 to 26, according as winter would take place when the earth was in its aphelion or perihelion. The mean annual heat may be assumed to be the same, whatever the eccentricity of the orbit, and yet if the extremes of heat and cold in winter and summer be greater, a colder climate will prevail; for there will be more ice accumulated in the cold winters than the hot summers can melt. This result will be produced by the vapor (aided by shelter from the rays of the sun) suspended in consequence of aqueous evaporation. Hence glacial periods occurred, when the orbit of the earth was at its greatest eccentricity, on those parts of the earth's surface where it was winter when the earth was in its aphelion; carboniferous or hot periods occurred where it was winter when the earth was in its perihelion; and temperate periods when the eccentricity of the earth's orbit

was at a minimum. All these gradually slide into each other, producing at long-distant periods alternations of cold and heat, some of which are actually observed in geological records.

Mr. Croll has calculated values of the eccentricity, and longitudes of the perihelion, at intervals of 50,000 years for 1,000,000 years past and 1,000,000 years to come, for the purpose of arriving at some better knowledge of these secular changes of climate, proved to result from eccentricity. He has determined the values at epochs of 50,000 years because the eccentricity changes so slowly that it is not necessary to calculate them at shorter intervals. From these the opinion is deduced that the glacial epoch of the geologists began about 240,000 years ago, and extended down to about 80,000 years ago; that the time of the greatest cold was 200,000 to 210,000 years ago; that the next preceding glacial epoch was about 750,000 years ago, still another 950,000 years ago, and that a similar condition of things will take place 800,000, 900,000, and 1,000,000 years to come.

This theory has elicited much discussion and able opposition in the English scientific magazines. It is claimed by those who dissent from it that, admitting the accuracy of Mr. Croll's determination of the values of the eccentricity, such a state of facts alone is not sufficient to account for the glacial epoch known to geologists.

Sun-Spots.-At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, Mr. Huggins presented the result of his observations of bright "granules" on those parts of the sun which are free from spots. These granules are the same appearances which have been called by other observers "willow-leaves," "rice-grains," "shingle-beach," and "bright nodules," all of which terms convey about the same idea of the phenomenon. The granules are distributed over the whole surface of the sun, excepting those areas which contain spots. When observed with powers of only 100 diameters, they present the appearance of rice-grains, but at higher powers, irregular masses may be seen. The granules do not appear to be flat disks, but bodies of considerable thickness. They average about 500 miles in breadth, and 500 or 600 miles in length; some being smaller, and occasionally one appearing of 1,000 or 1,200 miles in diameter. On many parts of the sun they lie in groups, the components being separated by small intervals. These groups vary in form, in some places taking the shape of round or oval cloud-like masses, and are elsewhere long, irregularly formed bands. To these groups, and to the varying brightness of the material between the groups and the granules, is to be attributed the coarse mottling of the sun's surface when observed by low powers. By some theorists they are considered to be recently condensed incandescent clouds, and by others as ridges, waves, or hills, on the surface of comparatively large luminous clouds.