length of staple. Early cottons (represented by the 'Bengals,' the Oomras of Berar, Khandesh, etc., and the Hinganghats of the Central Provinces, etc.) mostly come into market from October to January, while the late cottons (including Surats and Dholleras) are usually marketed from February to April. The Indian cottons are generally short-stapled, and attempts to acclimatize Egyptian and American varieties have not met with great success. The cotton is for the most part ginned and pressed up-country. Jute, the next most important fibre, is produced in the swampy delta tracts of North and East Bengal, and no other area in the world can compete in this cheap fibre. Jute is bought up at small river marts by natives, who convey it to wholesale merchants at larger trade centres, whence it is shipped by river craft to Calcutta. The chief centres of tea cultivation are Assam and Darjiling (Bengal), while coffee cultivation, which makes little progress, is confined to Madras and Coorg. Indigo, which is declining, is grown mainly in Bengal and Madras, the Bengal (Behar) being far superior. Opium is cultivated and manufactured in two areas-in the Ganges Valley round Patna and Benares, and in the Native State of Malwa in Central India. Tobacco is widely grown, and the soil and climate favour it, but the quality is mostly not very good, so that little is exported. Lac, for gums and dyes, is the secretion of an insect abounding on certain jungle-trees in Chutia Nagpur (Bengal), etc. It is exported from Calcutta. Teak, a leading product of Burma, is the best-known export timber, but the sal and deodar are also important woods. India is unsurpassed in opium, jute, tea, coffee, and indigo, but some of her other agricultural produce is comparatively inferior, especially cotton, tobacco, and sugar.

Since 1870 Government has made systematic efforts to foster and develop agriculture by distributing information as to crops, working experimental farms, trying new staples, introducing new appliances, organizing schools, and improving the breeds of cattle.

Mineral Resources.-Considering its vast area, India is not very rich in minerals. Coal, iron, and salt are widely distributed, but not easily accessible. The production of coal on a commercial scale cannot well extend beyond certain well-defined areas. Many coalfields, however, are as yet not fully explored, and only a small part of the known coal area is at present worked. The chief fields are in Bengal-viz., Raniganj and Barakar, covering

500 square miles, the Karharbara (Giridhi), covering eight square miles, the Jherria and Bokaro fields, west of Raniganj, covering 420 square miles, and the North Karanpura, covering 472 square miles, with others less important. In Assam the chief coal-field is at Makum, in the Lakhimpur district. In Central India the most important field, and the only one systematically worked, is that of Umaria in Rewa. In the Central Provinces are the mines of Warora and Mohpani. In Southern India the chief mine is the Singareni, in Hyderabad. In Madras coal is found in the Godavari Valley. In fact, generally speaking, the Indian coalfields lie mainly between the Ganges and the Godavari, in the broad centre of the peninsula. At present the only important mining centre is in Bengal, which yields over four-fifths of India's total output. The chief coalfields worked in this province are the Raniganj, Jherria, and Giridhi, all served by the East Indian Railway, and within 200 miles of Calcutta. In 1900 there were altogether 287 mines at work in India, and the total production of coal was over 6,000,000 tons. Bengal coal is the best, and much of it is excellent. The chief drawback of Indian coal is the large amount of ash. The demand for Indian coal for railways and factories and for steamers' bunkers has greatly increased, and an export trade to Ceylon and the Straits is fast developing.

Iron is found in close proximity to coal at Raniganj in Bengal, where alone it is produced on a large scale. Large deposits of ore are also found near Salem in Madras, and in the vicinity of the Warora coalfield. Lack of limestone within easy range for smelting is a drawback. The iron industry is hardly at all developed in India. The production and utilization of the iron ores require the application of much capital. Deficient enterprise, the initial expense, want of fuel, and imperfect transport facilities, have been the chief difficulties hitherto.

Enormous quantities of salt are found in the Salt Range and the Kohat district of the Punjab. It is also obtained from inland lakes and wells, and by evaporation from the sea. Saltpetre is found in Behar, and after refinement is exported from Calcutta.

Gold is produced mainly in four tracts in Mysore (a Native State), and the yield, which has steadily increased for several years, is now over 500,000 ounces. No other tracts at present appear likely to yield gold in remunerative quantities.

Petroleum is chiefly obtained from the Yenangyaung district of Burma. Assam also has a small output of the oil. Other minerals are comparatively unimportant. Copper in the form of copper pyrites occurs in many parts, especially from Darjiling west to Kumaon, but attempts to exploit it have not been very successful. Tin occurs in promising quantities only in the Mergui district of Lower Burma. Manganese ore is being worked with good results for exportation at Vizagapatam in Madras. Upper Burma produces jadestone and rubies. Bengal and Madras export small quantities of mica. The following table shows the output of the chief minerals (so far as ascertainable) during the last five years, in tons of 2,240 pounds:

Gallons.

Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. 14,816,000 18,905,000 18,424,000 32,310,000 36,974,000

239,000 222,000 548,000 623,000 753,000

2,000

2,000

1,000

2,000

15,057,000 19,129,000 18,972,000 32,934,000 37,729,000

The output of saltpetre is not given, as accurate figures cannot be obtained.

Industrial Resources. This large subject requires notice chiefly in relation to the production of commodities for export. The cotton industry is the most important factory industry. About 73 per cent. of the spinning-mills are in Bombay, but such mills are extending rapidly in other provinces. Probably one-half of India's production of raw cotton is consumed in her own mills. The yarn turned out by these mills is partly used at home, but chiefly exported to China. It consists mainly of coarse counts below 20s. Piece goods are woven on an increasing scale. Jute-mills, mainly located in and around Calcutta, are also rapidly growing, and increasing quantities of gunny bags and cloth are produced for home consumption and exportation. Leather goods, shawls, jewellery, brass and copper ware, wood-carving, tanned and dressed hides and skins, and carved ivory are among the manufactured products which affect the export trade, but these are far less important than cotton and jute manufactures. The following table shows the progress of the latter in recent years:

It should be noted that for several years the cotton-mill industry has been adversely affected by plague and famine, and that the great decline in the output of yarn in 1900-1 was due partly to these causes, partly to the scarcity and dearness of raw cotton resulting from the failure of crops, and partly to troubles in China, the great market for Indian yarn.

Among other industries rice-mills and saw-mills, mostly in Burma, woollen-mills, paper-mills, and breweries may be mentioned. Steampower is employed in tea gardens and indigo factories.

CHAPTER III.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, CURRENCY,
EXCHANGE, AND BANKING.

Weights and measures-Coinage-Currency legislation-Exchange rates-Paper currency-Banking-Bank rates.

Weights and Measures.-In 1871 an Act was passed in India for the ultimate adoption of a uniform standard of weights and measures. It was designed to assimilate Indian standards to the metric standards. The ser, for instance, was to be the equivalent of the kilogramme and of the litre. This Act, however, has never been brought into operation.

The weights actually in use vary considerably in different parts of India, even when the same name is adopted. Thus, the maund is 82 pounds avoirdupois in Bengal, about 28 pounds in Bombay, and about 25 pounds in Madras. Moreover, they often vary for different commodities. The weights adopted in Government transactions and by the Indian railway companies are those which were established under the East India Company by Bengal Regulation VII. of 1833. By this Regulation the tola or sicca weight was fixed at 180 grains troy, and the other denominations of weight are derived from this unit as follows:

Dry and liquid goods are sold by weight in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, as there are no standard measures of capacity.