THE TOWNSHIP INSTITUTE. THIRD MEETING. TEACHING THE LANGUAGE-ARTS. (Pp. 55-85.) VIII. The language-arts in higher grades and high school, 1. The continuity of mental growth. 2. Exercises to be employed in teaching the language- 3 Danger in studying foreign tongue in early grades. 5. Importance of composition work in all grades. 6. Importance of definite assignment of work. 7. Four forms of discourse defined. a. Examples of each. b. Show how a knowledge of these will help the composition work. 8. Helpful material for advanced grades. a. Examples of: (1) Maple tree. (2) The Hunchback of Notre Dame. 9. The importance of care in criticising composition work. 10. Suggestions for writing. IX. The art of reading. 1. Compare reading with other language-arts. 2. Relation of author to a composition. 3. Relation of reader to a composition. 4. Discuss Carlyle's idea of the relation between the reader and the author. 5. Carlyle's estimate of printing. X. Reading and mental cultivation. 1. The relation of reading to the guidance studies. 3. The relation of reading to the culture studies. 4. The linguistic influence of good books. 5. The English use of the word read." XI. Requisites for reading. 1. Three things necessary for one to read in the true sense: a, b, c 2. The importance of apperception in teaching reading. 3. "The reader must have one life with the author." Discuss, using illustrations from Tennyson, Macaulay and Shakespeare. 4. Value of personal contact with nature. COMMENT. The syllabus for the month embraces topics of the greatest interest for the practical teacher. These topics, however, are presented with so much fullness in the book itself that they do not seem to call for further elaboration or emphasis at the hands of the author. I shall, therefore, attempt a better thing, as I esteem it; that is, add some words to what is said in the book concerning the value of language cultivation. First, I shall ask the reader to turn back and read once more Chapter III, "The Vernacular as an Educational Instrument." Here the very intimate relation between mental activity, and particularly knowledge, on the one part, and expression, on the other, is pointed out. This is a fact of value, not merely for the scientist, but for the teacher also, because it shows the constant connection that should be maintained in teaching between the knowledge side and the language side of education. It may not be superfluous to repeat that good teaching of matter will tell on language and that good teaching of language will tell on matter. In fact, the only difference, at heart, between the two kinds of teaching is the placing of the emphasis. As I now review Chapter III, I think something more should have been said concerning the essential character of all national education. The topic is touched on page 18. The Humanists sought to confine education to the classical languages and literatures. They discouraged vernacular cultivation even to the extent of opposing translations of the classics. The great Malancthon said a classic in a translation was a shadow without the substance, and the still greater Luther placed the teaching of German after not only Latin and Greek but also Hebrew. Luther was a man of robust intelligence, thoroughly in sympathy with the people, and an enthusiastic advocate of national education. He did not see that the education which he so much desired to see become general was, according to his scheme, wholly impossible. The fact is, that as a class, the Humanists took little interest in the education of children; they had no education ideal, no teaching material, and no methods that could be employed in what we now understand as elementary education. When boys became old enough to study Latin and Greek, they knew what to do with them, but not before. The same thing may be said of the rigid Classicists who succeeded the Humanists. The cause of national education was, therefore, closely bound up with the reforms brought in by the Realists. Comenius had the great merit of seeing with perfect distinctness two all-important things that are closely connected. One is that the child's first cultivation must grow out of his contacts with the two worlds about him-nature and human society, and that books are available only when a considerably advanced stage of knowledge has been reached. This fact made him a Realist, or rather a sense-realist. The other thing that he saw was, that elementary education, to become general, must be conducted in the mother-tongue. It was for this reason that he called the elementary or common school the school of the vernacular. The longer one reflects upon the subject, the more closely will he see these two ideas to be connected, and the more indispensable to general or national education. Luther equalled Comenius in advocacy of general education, but so long as he did not grasp the realistic idea and the vernacular idea his advocacy was little more than fruitless. It is, indeed common, to explain the small immediate educational effect that Luther produced in Germany by referring to the distracted state of society growing out of the Reformation. This, no doubt, had much to do with it, but there was a much deeper cause, one inhering in the very nature of the Humanistic theory. The sun of national education rose with Comenius. Individuals will become learned in foreign tongues; but whole peoples-that is, nations, can be educated only in mother-tongues or vernaculars. This fact, it is very important for all educators, and all who make provision for education, to understand. There are the most satisfactory reasons why our state school laws generally require that the instruction given in the ordinary branches of education shall be given in the English language. Nor is the fact that national education is necessarily a vernacular education to be regarded as the hard portion of the many in contradistinction to the few. On the other hand, such cultivation is the strongest and richest that men can possibly receive. It is a cultivation that is rooted in the ultimate facts of daily life. But the potency of vernacular education has not been fully presented even yet. The classics have not held their own in the secondary schools and higher institutions of learning. Not so very long ago Latin was the academical language of Christendom. Students were for a long period forbidden to speak any language but Latin within the walls of Harvard College. Now, professors lecture in German, French, English, or Italian ; that is, in the vernacular of the country where they give their instruction. Furthermore, the classics have not maintained their ground as subjects of study, but have lost much of what they formerly commanded. Nor has the end of the movement in this direction been reached. Latin and Greek languages and literatures will not pass out of the schools, but will continue to be studied by eager students; still, it is perfectly apparent that the basis of education in all progressive countries is slowly shifting from an ancient to a modern basis. This fact is the sure pledge that modern languages and literatures, and particularly vernacular languages and literatures, will still farther trench upon the ground that the classics once held in undisputed possession. He must have a dull eye, indeed, who does not see that hereafter national literatures and national histories are going to do more than they have ever The done since the ancient days of ancient Greece and Judea to form national character and direct national life. It follows from the premises that the teachers in the elementary schools whose business it is to teach the language-arts should look upon themselves, not as holding an inferior position to that held by teachers of Greek and Latin, but should regard their position as a still higher and stronger one. No man who understands the philosophy of the subject will dream of denying that they have much more to do with forming the minds, characters, and lives of their pupils than it is possible for teachers of foreign languages to have or exercise. B. A. HINSDALE. 3. Socrates' idea of transmission of souls. a Compare with ideas in Dante's Inferno and Purgatorio; and in Hindoo religion. Read in this connection Wordsworth's "Ode on Intimations of Immortality." 4. The physician must study the body in whole and in part that he may understand its nature, and know how it may be affected at different times and in different ways. Just so must the rhetorician study the soul that his efforts may be intelligent when he seeks to produce conviction in a soul." (168.) a. Compare with modern views on pedagogy. 5. The main teaching in the Phædrus. 1. Introduction. 2. The subject of The Republic. 3. Greatest benefits of wealth to Cephalus. 4. What justice involves. 5. In which of the three classes of good, justice belongs. COMMENT-THE TEACHER AS A DRAMATIST. Soc. Yes, indeed, and a fair and shady resting-place, full of summer sounds and scents. There is the lofty and spreading plane-tree, and the agnus castus high and clustering, in the fullest blossom and the greatest fragrance; and the stream which flows beneath the plane-tree is deliciously cold to the feet. Judging from the ornaments and images, this must be a spot sacred to Achelous and the nymphs; moreover, there is a sweet breeze, and the grasshoppers chirrup; and the greatest charm of all is the grass like a pillow gently sloping to the head. My dear Phædrus, you have been an admirable guide.-Phædrus, p. 145. The aim of the present discussion is to render more clear, and thereby bring into greater empha sis, the thought that the teacher is a dramatist. In the quotation above given, Plato presents a beautiful and graphic setting for the theme of the dialogue. He does even more than this if we consider the discussion on the preceding page, in which he refers to the myth concerning Boreas. Phædrus wishes to know whether the location is not that from which Boreas carried off Orithyia. In the consideration of this and other myths, Socrates, like the "musing organist" in the prologue to the first part of The Vision of Sir Launfal, hints his theme from afar. He says that he is disinclined to study the myths in the attempt to give them a physical explanation. Indeed, he shows that he does not care to consider such subjects at all. For Socrates there is but one theme. The sophists had said that "Man is the measure of all things." In other words, they had asserted that the criterion is within the human breast. It is man itself. The human soul is the standard. All these assertions the sophists had made. In a certain sense Socrates agreed with them, but he raised a further and a higher question-"What am I?” "What is the nature of my soul?" He asserted, 'I must know myself." In other words, he claimed that he must not be controlled by custom, or habit, or tradition. He must examine the powers of his own spirit and be guided by what he found there. The great theme of Socrates is an examined life. Hence, in declining to discuss the myths, he says to Phædrus : "I must first know myself, as the Delphian inscription says; and I should be absurd, indeed, if while I am still in ignorance of myself, I were to be curious about that which is not my business. And, therefore, I say farewell to all this; the common opinion is enough for me. For, as I was saying, I want to know not about this, but about myself. Am I indeed a wonder more complicated and swollen with passion than the serpent Typho, or a creature of a gentler and simpler sort, to whom Nature has given a diviner and lowlier destiny?" That is, what Socrates demands is an examined life. In this way he not only presents a vivid picture which is a beautiful Greek setting to his theme, but, as mentioned above, like the musing organist," he gives an adumbration of the theme: "Over his keys the musing organist, Beginning doubtfully and far away, And builds a bridge from Dreamland for his lay: In all this it is shown that Plato possesses the dramatic element and insight, as indicated by the following on page XXII of the General Introduction: "Plato cannot be represented by an outline of his philosophy. He was, in fact, far more than a mere philosopher. He was a dramatic artist. He was more than that. He was a lover of men. And in the measure that he was these three-philosopher, dramatist, and lover--he was a teacher." The General Introduction not only points out the fact that Plato was a dramatist, but on pages XXIX, XXX, XXXI and XXXII it indicates the grounds for the belief that he was a dramatist. These grounds are four : 1. He presented his philosophical themes in the literary form known as the dialogue. Every teacher can call to mind the heightened interest and the greater vividness of the reality belonging to those selections in the school readers that were presented in the form of a dialogue. An example of this is the dialogue between the pendulum and the hands of a clock. This appeals to children with a much stronger interest than an essay upon the truth being presented would have done. 2. He constructed a graphic picture of Greek customs and scenery as a setting for his dialogues. An example of this is given at the beginning of this article. One is also found in the beginning of The Symposium. Here Appollodorus is halted upon the street and asked to recite the discourses in praise of love which were delivered at Agathon's. supper. An example is also found in the beginning of The Republic. This sets forth the journey down to the Piræus to the celebration of the festival of Bandis, the torchlight procession and the festival of the night, Cephalus seated on a cushioned chair with a garland on his head, etc. A good example is also found in the beginning of the dialogue entitled "Charmides or Temperance." Socrates had been away from the city with the army at Potidaea. Before beginning the discussion on temperance he sets forth in a vivid manner his return to his old haunts. He speaks of the Palæstra of Taureas. This was over against the temple adjoining the courts of King Archon. He says his visit was unexpected, and that upon entering they saluted him from afar on all sides. In detailed conversation he makes very real the nature of Greek life. This reality is further enhanced by his interesting account of the entrance of Charmides and the general order of the conversation until it reached the true element of temperance. This second mode of exhibiting the dramatic element is also illustrated in Agathon's reference to his domestics in The Symposium. "My domestics, who on these occasions become my masters, shall entertain us as their guests." "Put on the table whatever you like," he said to the servants, "as usual when there is no one to give you orders, which I never do. Imagine that you are our | hosts, and that I and the company are your guests; and treat us well, and then we shall commend you." This second mode is likewise shown in the reference to the hiccough of Aristophanes. According to the arrangement Aristophanes would have spoken before Eryximachus. With the purpose of giving an artistic touch and thereby rendering more graphic, more vivid, the entire discourse, Plato brings up the instance of the hiccough, and makes that the ground for changing the order of discourse and for hinting a certain mode of treating the hiccough. This may be seen from the following quotation on page 115: "When Pausanius came to a pause (this is the balanced way in which I have been taught by the wise to speak), Aristodemus said that the turn of Aristophanes was next, but that either he had eaten too much, or from some other cause he had the hiccough, and was obliged to change with Eryximachus the physician, who was reclining on the couch below him. 'Eryximachus,' he said, 'you ought either to stop my hiccough, or to speak in my turn until I am better.' "I will do both,' said Eryximachus: 'I will speak in your turn, and do you speak in mine; and while I am speaking let me recommend you to hold your breath, and if this fails, then to gargle with a little water; and if the hiccough still continues, tickle your nose with something and sneeze; and if you sneeze once or twice, even the most violent hiccough is sure to go. In the meantime I will take your turn, and you shall take mine I will do as you prescribe,' said Aristophanes, and now get on.'"' The student of Plato's Dialogues will find many other passages in which the theme is enhanced by having given to it a graphic setting. 3. A third ground for holding that Plato is a dramatist is this: he employs often in his teaching a story which possesses the same spirit as the philosophical theme he is attempting to set forth. For example, in The Symposium, while discussing love, Aristophanes wishes to present the thought that love is a desire which every human being has for completing himself, for removing his deficiency, for restoring himself to his original state. He thereupon constructs the myth which represents human beings as originally somewhat like the sphere, and afterwards on account of a controversy with Zeus being divided into halves. Love, he contends, is the desire of each of these halves to be complete again. This third manifestation of the dramatic element is shown in the figure given in The Phædrus which represents the human soul in the form of a charioteer driving two horses. In a dialectical argument Plato had just been showing that the soul is self-moving. This was his term for asserting that the soul is self-acting, self-determined. The figure also illustrates his thought of reminiscence; that is, that each human soul had once dwelt in heavenly regions and had gazed directly upon absolute truth, beauty and goodness, and that learning in the present life is merely recollecting. Any one who has read that portion of The Republic which sets forth the soul in the figure showing reason, or the philosophical element as man-like, the spiritual element as lion-like, and the appetitive element as a great beast, will see that this figure in The Phædrus is a mere modification of that. The charioteer here being the philosophical element, reason, intelligence; the white horse being the spiritual element, which is naturally allied to the philosophical element, and the black horse being the appetitive element. In Book II of The Republic, page 201, Glaucon gives the story of Gyges. By this story he illustrates his thought that the just man is just on account of no controlling principles within his soul, but merely on account of external force. Presenting this in the form of a story gives the dramatic element. Plato had the thought that there are four stages in the growth of the intellect : a. One in which it gives attention to shadows, reflections in water, etc. This is most superficial. b. One in which it regards particular objects, as pebbles, trees, rivers, clouds, rain, etc., as real and abiding objects. This is still superficial. Both of these are in the region of opinion. c. One in which the mind peers through particular phenomena and discovers an underlying principle. This is still less superficial. It is the stage of the understanding. d. One in which the mind passes from various general principles to one principle as an underlying activity of the universe. This is the stage of insight. Instead of presenting these stages in the growth of the intellect in an abstract philosophical form, Plato explained them by means of the allegory of the Cave in book VII of The Republic. Therein he exhibited his dramatic insight and tendencies. This may be shown by a further illustration: a. It was Plato's doctrine that custom, tradition, habit, is not sufficient to guide a man into right action. b. It was also his thought that his action in any given case would be controlled largely by his previous experience. In consequence, he held that man should depend upon wisdom, upon insight, and not upon custom and experience. c. He held that man is responsible for his choices. d. He claimed that the soul is immortal, and hence, that time is of very small importance compared with eternity. In discussing this question of immortality in the tenth book of The Republic he presents an argument. In brief form the argument is this: if a thing cannot be destroyed by its own inherent evil, and cannot be destroyed by the evil of anything else it is immortal. The soul has as its evil, vice. It cannot be destroyed by its own evil, and cannot be destroyed by the evil of anything else; hence, it is immortal. It was not his intention, however, to let the argument for immortality rest upon a philosophical basis merely. He wished to introduce the dramatic element. Therefore he introduced the story of Er, the Pamphylian. This story was intended to illustrate the doctrine of immortality and the three other doctrines that have just been mentioned. It is to illustrate the thought that men ought not to be governed by custom and habit, even if they have been under a well-ordered state, and inhabitants of heaven. His doctrine is that custom is worthless which is not based upon philosophy. For example, in book X, he says: "Now, he was one of those who came from heaven, and in the former life had dwelt in a well-ordered state." out the problem together. As the pupil expresses his thought of the problem, no matter how crude it is, the teacher must swing around from the teacher's table to the pupil's desk, and, for the time being, be the pupil himself-expressing his ideas, his sympathies, his desires, etc. This characteristic on the part of Plato is found in the beginning of The Republic. He is beginning the discussion of justice-a theme of great importance. No doubt he has his distinct ideas concerning it and a definite line of argument fitted to establish his views. He does not begin, however, with such logical procedure. (1) By a magic peculiarly his own he invites Cephalus, a wealthy old man of the olden times, to express his view concerning justice. (2) He calls in the testimony of Pindar. (3) He brings into evidence the thought of Simonides. (4) He induces the young and immature Polemarchus to take up the argument. (5) He is content to have Thrasymachus, the illogical and boastful Sophist, occupy the time in giving his view of justice. (6) Then he turns to Cleitophon briefly. (7) He is not content, however, until he has heard from Glaucon. (8) Next he listens to the more thoughtful Adeimantus. (9) At last he completes the discussion himself. A study of the dialogue entitled The Symposiun will show that from beginning to end it is an illustration of this thought, that Plato was unwill But his virtue was a matter of habit only, and ing to present his own view upon a subject in such he had no philosophy. 4. The fourth kind of evidence showing that Plato is a dramatist is stated on page XXXI of the General Introduction as follows: "It is never enough for him to know the absolute solution of any problem. He wishes also to know, with the sympathetic imagination, just how men of every sort look at that problem." Here we obtain this thought: Plato was never satisfied with a logical argument that would establish a truth to his own mind. He knew that there are various stages in the growth of the human mind. His aim was to instruct, to elevate. It was therefore clear to him that in order to instruct, or elevate, he must be aware of the atti- | tude of the person addressed to the problem which | he was discussing. Hence, he was never satisfied to set forth, however clearly, his own thought upon the subject and thereby bring the discussion to a close. That mode of discussion known as the lecture has this element too strongly in it. True teaching must allow a free and full expression of thought on the part of the listeners, on the part of the pupils themselves. Not only this; the teacher must sympathize with their views, and must, for the time being, put himself in the place of the pupil. They are to be companions working a way as to close the discussion and stifle inquiry. He was too dramatic for that. He wished that complete view of the subject that could be given by men in all stages of development. All these things bring out the idea that Plato was, in an important sense a dramatist, and that in so far as he had this element he was a skillful teacher. The members of the Reading Circle are studying Plato, in order to become more skillful teachers themselves. Each one will therefore say to himself. "In order to be more fully a teacher I must possess this dramatic element to a degree." It was no doubt surprising enough to have the claim made that all of the common school teachers should be, to a certain extent, philosophical. A study of The Republic will show that it greatly surprised Glaucon and Adeimantus when Plato claimed that kings should be philosophers. It may be still more surprising to have it held that the teacher must be not only a philosopher but also a dramatist? This brings to the front these questions: What is dramatic action, and what is it to be a dramatist? The word "dramatic" means action. It means vivid action-an action that makes something distinct, graphic. Not every kind of action, however, is dramatic. The growth of a tree is not dramatic; the swaying of its |