1. THE PSYCHOLOGY UNDERLYING THE FIRST SKETCH OF EDUCATION.

In the previous article the first of the three psychological elements was discussed. The present article will begin with the second. 1.-The second element-the spirited. (The lion, page 390.)

a. This element of mind termed "spirit" is shown, first, as the basis of courage. It is, therefore, the true mark of the military class. The courage arising from it is in the first place, of the ordinary physical kind. Afterwards Plato shows it in a more spiritual view as the courage that enables one to obey the law when his appetitive nature impels him to disobey it.

"And is he likely to be brave who has no spirit, whether horse or dog or any other animal? Did you never observe how the presence of spirit makes the soul of any creature absolutely fearless and invincible?" (Book II, section 875, page 219.)

b. This element of spirit is shown by Plato to be peculiarly influenced by physical culture. If this physical culture is of the right degree and not too exclusive, the person is trained into true bravery. If the physical culture is too exclusive then the spirited element becomes transformed into brutality.

"The very exercises and toils he will undertake in order to

stimulate the spirited element of his nature, rather than with a view of increasing his strength." (Book III, section 410, page 242.)

"Moreover," I said, "that fierce quality gives spirit, and, if educated rightly, will be valiant; but, if overstrained, is likely to become hard and brutal." (Book III, section 410, page 243.)

c. The teacher will be interested in noticing that Plato indentifies the spirited element with anger of two kinds. Both kinds he regards as justifiable. They are, indeed, what is often termed righteous indignation. One of these is anger at the triumph of appetite over reason. This is shown in a very graphic way by the following passage:

"Well," I said, "there is a story which I remember to have heard, and on which I rely. The story is that Leontius, the son of Aglaion, was coming up from the Piræus, under the north wall on the outside, and observed some dead bodies lying on the ground by the executioner. He felt a longing desire to see them, and also a disgust and abhorrence of them; for a time he turned away and averted his eyes, and then, suddenly overcome by the impulse, forced them open, and ran up, saying (to his eyes,) take your fill, ye wretches, of the fair sight." (Book IV, section 440, page 271.)

The other is that justifiable anger which arises on account of unjust treatment.

"But when he thinks that he is sufferer of the wrong, then he boils and chafes, and is on the side of what he believes to be justice; and because he suffers hunger or cold, or other pain, he is only the more determined to persevere and conquer; he must do or die, and will not desist until he hears the voice of the shepherd-that is, reason, bidding his dog bark no more." (Book IV, section 440, page 272.)

d. Since every ambitious or competitive enterprise is in a certain sense a contest, this spirited element is truly a basis of ambition and competition.

"Again, is not the passionate element wholly set on ruling and conquering and getting fame?' ""True.'

Suppose we call that contentious or ambitious-would the term be suitable?

"Extremely suitable.'" (Book IX, section 581, page 384.) e. The relation of the spirited element to the rational or philosophical is one hinted again and again by Plato. He takes pains to render it clear that in an unperverted state the spirited element is the servant and ally of the rational.

"And are there not many other cases in which we observe that, when a man's desires violently prevail over his reason, he reviles himself, and is angry at the violence within him, and that in this struggle, which is like the struggle of actions in a State, his spirit is on the side of his reason? But that the passionate or spirited element should side with the desires when reason decides that she is not to be opposed, this sort of thing, I believe, you will say that you never observed occurring in yourself; nor, as I think, in any one else?” (Book IV, section 440, page 272.)

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Pothose many devot the propriety of introducing a foreign ang may The foreign language introded would be rich in the literature of the past and in contributions to English, or it should be rich in its contributions to the science and Literature of the present. Greek and Latin satisfy the first requirement, French and German the second. It would seem, then, that from these four languages the foreign language for the high school course should be selected. But why have a foreign language in the course? Language study brings the student new grammatical forms, idioms and inflexions, a great diversity. To comprehend this diversity

there must be a rapid expansion of the stuAs soon as he gets into the spirit of age he is brought in contact with divilization and with new and strate forms of thought. This will broaden In learning the details of a language the lowest kini of observation is necessary, and in translation the nicest discrimination in the base of words is required. All this Shows that the study of a foreign language Zines & Deossary kind of power not resulting in the same degree from any other study. A farem language will continue to have a definite place in the high school course. Up to the present time, the study of Greek or Latin has probably given the best returns. This is not necessarily because of any supe rior inherent merit, but because they have been taught by far the best trained teachers. When French and German command a better trained teaching force they will replace much of the Latin and Greek. If it is ques tion of my boy studying German under a poorly prepared teacher, or Latin under a well prepared one, he will surely study Latin. Under the reverse conditions he will study German. When we consider the end to be attained, it is not so much a question of what language as it is a question of the real inspiring study of a language. Of course, German is better than Choctaw, and Latin than Chinese. The language should furnish discipline and at the same time contain material of real worth. Languages without literature are thus excluded.

Mathematics by its nature is well fitted as an instrument to help realize the purpose of the school. It requires accuracy, logical rea soning, broad generalization and a high degree of concentration. Whatever the boy is to be he has need of all these. Algebra and geometry are not beyond the powers of any normally constituted high school pupil. They will cause expansion, but they als constantly demand that care of details which is a requisite in all the affairs of life. A dis tinguished lawyer of our state reads his Euclid once a year in order to be better able to grasp the details of his business. Near the close of his life a great English scientist said that he had always keenly felt the lack of elementary mathematical training. The mere facts of mathematics will soon be forgotten, but the unique power attained by the study is a permanent possession. The study of mathematics makes one cautious in the acceptance of theories. No doctrine.

appeals to the mathematically trained mind. unless it rests logically upon a foundation of fact.

History brings the student into close contact with mankind. It acquaints him with the sources of weakness and strength, not only of nations but of individuals. It takes him outside himself and gives him that broad charitable view which fits him for good citizenship. The tracing of cause and effect gives an exercise in logical reasoning akin to that found in mathematics. It is even better than that of mathematics for the reasoning concerns human affairs.

We live in a scientific age. Every success of the day is achieved by the aid of science. To be prepared for life, the young man must have some of the scientific spirit of the age. He needs the power that comes from observing the minutest detail, as well as the power that comes from the widest generalizations. To meet these needs laboratory science is preeminent. Here, again, it is not a question of what science. The old custom of a brief course in each of the sciences has been replaced by the longer study of one or two sciences. If two sciences are studied, there is a distinct advantage in selecting one from the physical group and the other from the biological group. This brings the student into scientific contact with both the animate and inanimate world. A course in science should continue at least a year. The tendency is to have it continue throughout the full four years of the course. Science teaching is costly. It requires much apparatus and it implies small classes. The teaching must be largely individual. It furnishes, then, the best opportunity for intimate acquaintance with the student. Science, the youngest of the high school studies, is certainly entitled to full recognition in every curriculum.

If the preparation for life is to come. through the subjects discussed, the course should provide for at least three years of English, three years of language, three years of mathematics, one year of science, and one year of history. It has been the purpose of the paper to show that every highschool student should study this much in common. This leaves in a four years' course five years of work unprovided for. These five years should be filled with elective work. The character of this elective work must be determined by the school itself, and will depend upon its wealth, and

the number and ability of its teachers. Large and wealthy schools will offer three or four-year courses in two or three foreign languages, one to four-year courses in each of two or more sciences, a four-years' course in mathematics, a three to four-years' course in history, a four-years' course in English, and courses in economics, social science, art, and music. In smaller schools there will be fewer elective subjects. Science, for lack of means, will in many cases be limited to a single year, so that no election in it will be possible. English, language, mathematics, and history do not require much apparatus, nor very extensive libraries. Therefore, in these subjects the smaller schools can offer considerable elective work. The school that has a well-trained enthusiastic teacher of language will do its pupils a lasting service by giving them the opportunity of long continued contact with him. In smaller schools the range of electives should always take into account the teaching force. Local conditions may frequently help to determine the non-elective as well as the elective part of the course. The nationality of the patrons may make a modern language preferable to an ancient one. a city devoted largely to certain kinds of manufactories, physics or chemistry may be preferable to a biological science.

In

It is the duty of every school to offer as much elective work as it can possibly do well. This multiplies the chances of each pupil finding his bent. It is in the high school period that permanent tastes are formed, and that character is fixed. The boy who leaves the high school enraptured with some field of human thought is safe. The failures of life are made up of those who have never found themselves. The earlier the pupil finds a field of thought to which he readily responds the better. Intense interest in any subject soon awakens a deep interest in other subjects. That high school is best that turns out the largest number of young men and women who have an abiding interest in something.

The course here outlined is based upon the thought that the high school should prepare young people for life. Will such a course prepare for college? The common part of the course is required for admission to all colleges. Most colleges specify more. than this eleven years' work. The boy who has chosen a particular college can, in most instances, so use his five years of election as

to prepare for his entrance examinations. Getting his preparation in this way is a vast improvement over the old plan that compelled all his fellows, regardless of taste or destination, to pursue the same studies with him. Four years study along the lines indicated does not prepare for college work. That the four years work should all be in lines designated by the college, has nothing back of it but age and the whim of the college. What the college needs is students who have had such a course of training as will fit them to work to the best advantage. The plan outlined will do away with the uniformity of high school courses.

This is,

perhaps, the strongest argument in its favor. If there is any danger threatening the very vitality of our schools it is uniformity. The world doesn't want uniform products. There is no place for the average man, even if such a man were possible. The schools should not turn out such products. The high school takes the student just when his essential individuality begins to assert itself. It should be its mission to turn him out a distinct individual. It is to individuals that the nineteenth century must pass her problems, and it is by individuals that these problems must be solved.

INDIANA UNIVERSITY.

OXFORD, as one of the earliest and most

renowned seats of learning in Europe, has played an important part in the history of education. The teacher who is interested in that theme and in the development of educational systems will always find in Oxford and its colleges a subject worthy of his attention.

The oldest educational institution in Indiana has not yet had four decades of continuous life, but here one stands in the presence of an institution where a thousand years of continuous teaching have been in progress. No one can say when public teaching first began at Oxford. It was probably before Alfred's time. It is true that no organization of a university, or of a college, had taken shape until long after Alfred. The earliest teaching here was probably merely that of a grammar school connected with a priory. It was not until the twelfth century, nearly a century after the Norman Conquest, that Oxford passed from the position of a secondary school to that of a university. It has been well said that a school is a university if it does the work of a university; that is, if it provides for the teaching of men by specialists as professors. A university organization is not essential. In this sense Oxford became a university very early, for it very early became the residence of distinguished professors and lecturers;

and here students came from all parts of England and the continent to receive instruction from great leaders of learning.

In higher education the English universities stand distinctly for the collegiate system. Unless one understands that system, he cannot understand the educational life and influence for which Oxford stands. It is often said that the colleges of Oxford are monastic in their origin and constitution. The truth is, they had their origin in the purpose of displacing the monastic foundations, of finding a substitute for the monastery, or the purely ecclesiastical school. The organizations, or institutions, for education were indeed chiefly monastic, and to prepare for holy orders was the chief end of the higher study; but when Walter de Merton founded the first college of Oxford in 1264-a foundation which became a model for all the rest-he stipulated that no "religious person," that is, no monk or friar, should become a member of his college. He proposed an organization for a body of students in order that those who had been in private "inns," or "hostels," or "halls," might come together into common lodgings, under common rules and regulations, in obedience to a common warden of their own choice, and for mutual help and encouragement in study. But Merton's college was distinctively for purposes of study, not for pur