Bolshevist doctrines of pacifism. As later events were to prove, the Germans were little affected, though it was the policy of the German officers to encourage a belief to the contrary among the Russians. HE GERMANS TAKE WHATEVER THEY THE M WISH. the purposes of straightening out the front. This at least relieved the fear of the Russians that Petrograd was to be made the object of immediate attack. Only a few weeks intervened, however, between then and the final collapse of Russia as an enemy of Germany, when the Bolsheviki were to open the negotiations which were to culminate in the humiliating peace of Brest-Litovsk. Before the final collapse of the Kerensky régime, however, Russian patriots were to suffer another blow from an enemy success. On October 12, 1917, under cover of strong naval SOME SLIGHT OPERATIONS detachments, the Germans landed marines and soldiers on the shore of Tagga Bay, north of the Island of Oesel, in the Gulf of Riga. An engagement took place between the German ships and the Russian ships and shore batteries, in which the former prevailed through their greatly superior force, though here the Russians showed a determined resistance. During the next few days the Germans also occupied Oesel and Dago islands, and still later, Moon Island. In the naval operations which took place during this period the Russians lost several large ships, though the Russian official reports claimed that the Germans lost two dreadnoughts, one cruiser, twelve torpedo boats and a number of smaller craft. As a contrast to these German successes, the German lines in the Riga sector were withdrawn considerably for TAKE PLACE Of the operations on the RussoTurkish front during the Kerensky régime only a few words are necessary. In April the Russians had been forced to retire from Mush. During the rest of the summer practically no reports came in from this front. On November 4, only three days before the Bolshevist revolution, there was a slight revival of activity against the Turks. In the Black Sea Coastal region, in the Kalkit-Tchiflik sector, the Russians began a sudden offensive and penetrated the Turkish lines to their third line trenches. But this slight success was not sustained. Later in November further hostilities were continued, in co-operation with the British forces north of Bagdad, for apparently the Russians in this more distant theatre of the war were the last to be affected by the wave of Bolshevist propaganda. The United States Enters the War UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE BRINGS THE NATION INTO THE CONTEST BY the close of 1915 American diplomacy seemed to have won a victory in the submarine controversy. Germany had agreed that no passenger vessels should be sunk without provision being made for the complete safety of the passengers and crew. The feeling of relief which this agreement brought was soon disturbed by the controversy over the arming of merchant vessels. (See p. 275.) HE GERMAN GOVERNMENT DENIES TRESPONSIBILITY FOR THE SUSSEX. Pending the settlement of the dispute the country was aroused by the news of the sinking of the cross channel steamer Sussex on March 24, 1916. The Sussex was not armed and had never carried troops. The attack was without warning and resulted in the injury or death of eighty passengers, among them several Americans. This was a violation of an explicit promise. The German government, while admitting that a vessel had been sunk at the time and place indicated, contended that the vessel was not the Sussex. To substantiate this claim the authorities submitted a sketch of the vessel sunk, made by the commander of the submarine, differing in shape and construction from the Sussex. It is difficult to believe that even the German officials took this "evidence" seriously. THE HE AMERICAN NOTE AMOUNTS TO AN Secretary Lansing despatched a note to Germany in the nature of an ultimatum. Recalling the previous promises made by the German authorities and indicating that the sinking of the Sussex clearly violated these pledges, he declared that unless the Germans should immediately abandon their "present methods of submarine warfare against passenger and freightcarrying vessels" the United States would have no other recourse than to break diplomatic relations with Germany. The German reply was received on May 4, 1916. May 4, 1916. It stated that the commanders of submarines had received the following instructions: "In accordance with the general principles of visit and search and destruction of merchant vessels recognized by international law, such vessels, both within and without the area declared a naval war zone, shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human lives unless these ships attempt to escape or offer resistance." AMERICAN RIGHTS NOT DEPENDENT UPON BRITISH ACTION. It was stated, however, that the United States was expected to insist that Great Britain should abandon her blockade of Germany and her had been made to comply with the rules of cruiser warfare. The relief proved to be but temporary, as this pause in submarine frightfulness was not due to any change of heart on the part of the German authorities, but to policy. Admiral von Tirpitz' Memoirs show the conflicting forces in Germany at this period. On December 12, 1916, the Teutonic alliance without previous intimation or explanation proposed that the belligerents "enter forthwith into peace negotiations." The military situation. and the internal conditions in Germany will explain the reason. The war map showed the Teutonic powers in posses sion of large areas of enemy territory. Belgium, Northern France, Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania and Russian Poland and some of the Baltic lands of Russia had been overrun. All of these were valuable pawns with which to negotiate if the Entente should agree to enter upon peace discussions. It seemed improbable that the situation would ever be more favorable for the Teutonic powers. But these notable gains had not been won without great sacrifices by the German people. Two years of warfare had made great inroads upon the man power and material resources of the Teutonic allies. The blockade was making it increasingly difficult for the German authorities to obtain essential war materials, to say nothing of food and clothing for the civilian population. HE REASONS FOR THE GERMAN OFFER THE REASON In these circumstances something was needed to strengthen the morale of the German people. By making a peace offer which they knew would be rejected by their enemies, the German leaders hoped to be able to convince the German people that they were fighting a defensive struggle and thus to reconcile them to greater sacrifices. As was anticipated the Entente Allies refused to consider the German proposal, which they stated was "empty and insincere." Mr. Lloyd George declared that "to enter on the invitation of Germany, proclaiming herself victorious, without any knowledge When the German peace offer appeared President Wilson had already prepared a communication to the various belligerents. In this note the President directed attention to the fact that each side professed to be fighting a defensive war; each claimed to be "ready to consider the formation of a League of Nations to ensure peace and justice throughout the world. The objects for which both sides were fighting "stated in general terms seem to be the same. "The President felt justified, therefore, in asking the belligerents to state "the precise objects which would, if attained, satisfy them and their people." In reply the German government evaded the question but renewed its offer to enter upon peace negotiations. The Entente powers replied more to the point. While they were unwilling to declare their objects in complete detail, certain fundamental conditions. were set down. These included the restoration of Belgium, Serbia, and Montenegro with compensation; the evacuation of France, Russia and Rumania with just reparation; the reorganization of Europe on a stable basis which involved the liberation of the subject nationalities in Germany, Austria and Turkey. At the same time it was stated that it was not the purpose of the Entente allies "to encompass the extermination of the German people and their political independence." WOODROW WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES nothing less than this; to add their authority and their power to the authority and force of other nations to guarantee peace and justice throughout the world." If the people of the United States were to be asked to join in this great enterprise he felt that it was necessary to formulate the conditions upon which he "would feel justified in asking our people to approve its formal and solemn adherence to a League for Peace." While the United States would have no voice in determining the actual terms of peace it was greatly interested in what the terms of peace shall be. "We shall have a voice in determining whether they shall be made lasting or FORGING A CANNON AT THE BETHLEHEM STEEL WORKS In making a heavy cannon the great ingot of cast steel is forged into shape by continual blasts of heavy hammers before it is entirely cool. Here we see an ingot under the hammer. The Bethlehem works had been engaged in making munitions for the Allies on a large scale before the United States entered the war. of the permanency of the settlement so much greater than the force of any nation now engaged or any alliance hitherto formed or projected, that no nation, no probable combination of nations, could face or withstand it." But the terms of the peace must be such as to warrant such a guarantee. "The question upon which the whole future peace and policy of the world depends is this: Is the present war a struggle for a just and secure peace, or only for a new balance of power? If it be only for a new balance of power, who will guarantee, who can guarantee, the stable equilibrium of the new arrangement? There must be, not a permitted to put my own interpretation upon it and that it may be understood that no other interpretation was in my thought. I am seeking only to face. realities and to face them without soft concealments. Victory would mean peace forced upon the loser, a victor's terms imposed upon the vanquished... Only a peace between equals can last.. Equality of territory or of resources there, of course, cannot be; nor any sort of equality not gained in the ordinary peaceful and legitimate development of the people themselves. But no one asks or expects anything more than an equality of rights.' Of even greater importance was the |