า

ingly went up North to secure ratification, but upon arrival at Taku, the Allies found that the forts were reconstructed and the river was blockaded by heavy chains. In an attempt to force their way through, they were disastrously repulsed by the fire of the Taku forts. Reënforced, they came up again and this time silenced the forts, and pushed up the river until they reached Changchiawan, whereupon the Peking Court sued for peace.

The provisions that were most obnoxious to the Imperial Court were the residence in Peking of the diplomatic representatives, the opening of the Yangtze to foreign trade and the right of purchase of goods in the interior. These distasteful provisions led to the renewal of resistance on the part of the Imperial Court.

Compromise might have been reached and peace concluded, had not another unfortunate event occurred which impelled the Allied forces to march to Peking. On September 18, 1860, a British reconnoitering party and also a French party were ambushed at Changkiawan by the Imperial forces and carried to Peking, where they were subjected to torture and imprisonment. This led to the onward march of the Allies to Peking. As an act of revenge, the British set fire to the beautiful Summer Palace, Yuan Ming Yuan. Thereupon, the Imperial Court fled to Jehol, leaving Prince Kung to arrange the terms of peace.

The subsequent treaties of peace signed at Peking on October 24, with the British, and on October 25, 1860, with the French, concluded the war. An apology was to be offered for the obstruction given by the Taku forts." The Treaty of Tientsin was confirmed and ratified. The right of diplomatic representatives to reside at Peking was confirmed. An indemnity of eight million taels was to be paid to the British and the French Government respectively. Tientsin was to be opened as a treaty port. Kowloon was to be ceded to Great Britain as a buffer to Hongkong. The Americans, un

willing to be unfriendly to China, had exchanged their treaty of Tientsin on August 16, 1859, at Peitang.

During the advance of the allied forces on Peking and their subsequent occupation thereof, the Russian representative, General Ignatieff, played a most skillful diplomatic game. On the one hand, he threatened that a Russian fleet would be ordered to Peitang. On the other, he offered cannon and supplies to the Imperial Court and persuaded the Allies to withdraw. Posing as the

savior of China, he pressed for the cession of the TransUsuri territory.18 As a reward for his service, he caused the Imperial Court to conclude the treaty at Peking on November 14, 1860. It was to be a supplement to the previous treaty of Aighourn of May 16, 1858, and the treaty of Tientsin of June 13, 1858. It was mainly to fix unsettled boundary lines and to regulate commercial and diplomatic relations. The Eastern frontier was defined; the territory North of the Amur was to belong to Russia, and that to the South to China.19 By this agreement China lost her maritime province east of the Usuri. The Western frontier was also delimited.20

Thus, it can be said that the opening of China was a slow process. Up to 1842, foreign trade was largely confined to Canton with Macao as the base, except the Russian trade at the Northern frontier. The first war between China and Great Britain resulted in the opening of South China through the portals of the five treaty. ports as provided in the Treaty of Nanking, 1842. The Treaty of Tientsin of 1858 effected the opening of the Yangtze. It was not, however, until 1860, that by the Treaty of Peking in 1860, North China was opened through the door of Tientsin, and the diplomatic relation with the Imperial Court was definitely established. Thus, while the process of opening is still going on in China,as the interior of China is, as yet, not open to foreign trade and residence,-it may nevertheless be said that

the period of 1689-1860 marked the intial stage of the opening of China.

NOTES TO CHAPTER I

1. Morse, the International Relations of the Chinese Empire, Vol. I, p. 54.

2. Ibid., p. 216.

His order reads in part as follows: "I now proceed to issue my commands. When this order reaches the foreign merchants, let them with all haste pay obedience thereto, and let them deliver up to the government every particle of the opium on board their store-ships. Let the Hong merchants make a list of the opium delivered by each firm, in order that all surrendered may be accounted for, so that it may be burnt and destroyed, and that thus the evil may be entirely extirpated. There must not be the smallest atom concealed or withheld. At the same time let these foreigners give a bond, written jointly in the foreign and Chinese language, making a declaration to this effect; 'That their vessels, which shall hereafter resort hither, will never again dare to bring opium with them: and that, should any be brought, as soon as discovery shall be made of it, the opium shall be forfeited to government, and the parties shall suffer extreme penalties of law: and that such punishment will be willingly submitted to.""

3. Morse, Vol. I, ibid., p. 229.

4. Hertslet's China Treaties, Vol. I, pp. 7-13.

5. The treaty was abrogated by Article 1 of the Treaty of Tientsin, June 26, 1858, and embodied in the subsequent Treaty. 6. The Convention of April 4, 1846, Hertslet's China Treaties, Vol. 1, pp. 15-16.

7. Agreement of April 6, 1847, Hertslet, 17-18.

8. Morse, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 396.

9. Ibid., p. 398. Lord Palmerston to Mr. Bonham, No. 68, August 18, 1849.

10. Meanwhile the Russians in the North were making advances in frontier trade. On July 25th, 1851 (Hertslet, Vol. I, pp. 449-454, No. 79), the Treaty of Kouldja was signed between Russia and China regulating the trade between Ili and Tarbagatai. The appointment of consuls was provided to supervise the frontier trade. The disputes were to be decided by these agents. The frontier commerce was to be freed from all duties. Extradition of criminals was provided. Pasturages were to be alloted for beasts of burden of Russian merchants and to be kept by them, and plots of ground to be allotted to Russian merchants to build their houses and factories. Two sheep out of every ten imported at Ili or Tarbagatai were to be given over to the Chinese government for an equivalent in cloth.

11. Hertslet, op. cit., p. 268, Article 35, Treaty of Whampoa, October 24, 1844; also Morse, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 414.

12. Article 8, supplementary treaty, October 8, 1843, State Papers, Vol. 31, p. 133.

13. Hertslet, Article 28, Treaty of 1844, p. 267.

14. Papers relating to proceedings of H. M. naval forces at Canton, October to December, 1856, presented to both Houses of Parliament, 1857, pp. 1-10. Ćf. Morse, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 422.

15. While the war was proceeding unfavorably against China, Russia took advantage of the situation. She caused China to sign the Treaty of Aighoun of May 16, 1858. (Hertslet, op. cit., 454-5, No. 80.) The boundaries was defined along the course of the Amur River. “La rive gauche du flueve Amour, à partir de la rivière Argoun jusqu'à l'enbouchure de l'Amour, appartiendra à l'Empire de Russie, et Sa rive droite, en aval jusqu' à la rivière Oussouri, appratitnera à l'Empire Ta-Tsing; lis territoires et endroits situés entre la rivière Oussouri et la mer, comme jusqu'à pré sent, seront possédis en common par l'Empire Ta-Tsing et l'Empire de Russie, en attendant que la frontière entre les deux Etats y soit réglée." (Art. 1, Hertslet, op. cit., p. 454.) The navigation of the Amour, Sungari, and Ussuri was to be opened only to the Russian and Chinese vessels. 16. Hertslet, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 19-35, No. 6.

17. Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 48-52, 287-291.

18. Morse, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 613.

19. Hertslet, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 462-471, Article 1.

20. The civil disputes were to be settled amicably by the parties themselves, by means of arbitrators chosen by themselves and with the help and coöperation of the consuls and local authorities (Article 8). Criminal cases are to be adjudged according to the laws of their own country.

II

THE LOSS OF DEPENDENCIES (1860-1895)

It

THE second period of the diplomatic history of China dates from the close of the war with Great Britain and France (1857-1860) to the end of the war with Japan (1894-1895), covering a span of thirty-five years. continues the first period in that it carries on the process of the opening up of China, which, as we have seen, was the chief feature of the first peroid. It, however, has its own distinctive feature which differentiates it from the first period.

This distinctive feature is the gradual loss of China's dependencies. As if Western aggression worked from outside, the opening of China was followed by the loss of her dependencies; the integrity of her own soil was not threatened until the period ensuing. During this period China lost no less than nine dependencies,-the Liuchiu Islands to Japan in 1881, the Western parts of Ili to Russia in 1881, Tongkin and Annam to France in 1885, Northern Burma to Great Britain in 1886, and Sikkim to the same in 1890, and Korea, Formosa, and the Pescadores, to Japan in 1895.

As I have said, this period continues the first period in that it carries on the process of the opening up of China. During the period other Western nations came into treaty relations with China. To the list of the Treaty powers, which hitherto was limited only to Great Britain, the United States, France, Russia, Norway and Sweden, were added the newcomers which signed their treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation.