A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1922

vation, Products: Wheat, barley, Indian
corn, hemp, henna, and tropical and sub-
tropical fruits; dates a regular crop in
south. Wealth of Arabs consists of cat-
tle, horses, sheep, and ostriches. Manu-
factures comprise carpets, fezzes, leather,
woolens, silks, jewelry, saddlery, earthen-
ware, etc. Mineral deposits-undeveloped
-include iron, gold, silver, manganese,
antimony, lead, etc.; fine amethysts found.
Fez is the northern capital and leading
commercial city; Morocco southern capi-
tal and has manufactures of morocco
leather. Tangier, seaport and chief center
of trade. Education is limited to teach-
ings from Koran. Mohammedanism pre-
dominant religion. The Sultan is the head
of the religion. The army comprises
about 12,000 men under European disci-
pline and an additional force of 8,000 mi-
litia and 10,000 infantry.

SPANISH POSSESSIONS.-Canary Is-
lands. Became a Spanish possession, 1493.
Administratively part of Spain. Surface
mountainous, diversified by plains and val-
leys. Chief products, sugar, cochineal,
and wine; other products, tobacco, silk,
oil, wheat, barley, and tropical fruits.
Capital, Santa Cruz de Teneriffe; chief
port, Palmas. Religion, Roman Catholic.

Rio de Oro and Adrar-area, 73,000 square
miles; population, 12,000-under Governor-
ship of Canary Islands with Subgovernor
at Rio de Oro. Fernando Po and Anna-
bon, fertile, mountainous islands in Gulf of
Guinea.

PORTUGUESE POSSESSIONS.-Cape
Verde Islands discovered and colonized by
Portuguese 1460. Has flourishing cin-
chona plantations. Other products include
coffee, cacao, tobacco, sugar, brandy, palm
oil, fruits. Cattle, goats, pigs, numerous.
Manufactures: Salt, soap, linens, pottery,
and leather. Iron and amber in southern
islands. Capital, Praia.

Senegambla

Portuguese Guinea.-On
coast, surrounded on land side by French
possessions, includes Bissagos Archipelago
and Bolama Island. Chief products: India
rubber, wax, oil, seeds, ivory, and hides.
Capital, Bolama."

St. Thomas and Prince Islands.-St.
Thomas (Sao Thomé) discovered by Portu-
guese, 1470; with Prince Island (Ilha do
Principe), its dependent, forms province
of Portugal. Volcanic and mountainous
(Pico de Sao Thomé, 7,028 feet) with lux-
uriant vegetation. Climate unhealthful;
more rain than on mainland. Chief prod-
ucts, coffee, cacao, cinchona; sugar and
vanilla also produced. Capital, Cidade de
Sao Thomé. Chief town and port (Prince
Island) Sao Antonio.

Madeira Islands.-Islands known to an-
cients and visited by Arabs in the twelfth
century: rediscovered and colonized by
Portuguese, 1420. Very mountainous
(Pico Ruivo. 6.060 feet). Notable health
resort for European invalids. Mean tem-
perature, 65 deg.; highest, 85 deg.: lowest,
54 deg. Sugar cane, tobacco, and all trop-
ical and European fruits grown; wines fa-
mous. Funchal, capital, 20,844.

BRITISH POSSESSIONS.-Gold Coast.-
Danish settlements transferred to Fng-
land. 1850; Dutch claims, 1872; colonial
government established, 1874: Ashantee
placed under British protection, 1895-96.
Coast regions level; interior hilly. Soil
fertile. Products: Palm oil and kernels. In-
din rubber, kola nuts, and timber. Gold
widely distributed. Akra, capital and
chief city. Cape Coast Castle. Railways,
168 miles. Telegraph, 1,363 miles. Educa-
tion mainly in hands of religious bodies.

Gambia.-Territory discovered by Portu-
guese, 1447; fort established by English,

1686; became British possession, 1783;
annexed to Sierra Leone, 1841; independ
ent colony, 1888. Products and exports:
Ground nuts, hides, beeswax, rice, cotton,
corn, and India rubber. Bathurst, capital
and chief city.

Sierra Leone.-Northwest of Liberia.
Unsuccessful attempt made to colonize lib-
erated slaves, 1787; territory annexed by
England, 1791; became Crown colony,
1807. Coast an undulating plain; interior
elevated plateaus. Forests extensive. Soil
fertile, rice yielding abundantly in inte-
rior; cotton plentiful; indigo practically
wild. Exports include palm oil and palm
kernels, ginger, ground and kola nuts, trop-
ical fruits, India rubber, copal, and hides.
Cocoanut oil is produced; workers in gold
and silver are numerous and skilful. Free-
town, capital; most important seaport
(fortified) of West Africa.

Nigeria, bounded on the east by Ka-
merun, west by Dahomey, and divided into
two divisions, Northern and Southern Ni-
geria. About nine-tenths of the area was
formerly within the territories of the Roy-
al Niger Company. In 1884-87 whole of
Nigeria was declared to be under British
protection; in 1900 it was transferred to
direct imperial administration.

Northern Nigeria.-Products of the low-
country, palm oil; inland region, rubber,
ground nuts, sheabutter, ivory, hides, live
stock, ostrich feathers. Cotton growing is
carried on; tobacco also grown. Minerals:
Tin ore is in rich deposits, silver also
found. Protestant missionary societies
have industrial schools.

Southern Nigeria, colony and protector-
ate of Southern Nigeria and Lagos. The
chief products are palm-oil, cotton, cocoa,
coffee, ivory, hides, earthnuts and fruits.
Minerals: Manganese ore, tin ore, lignite,
and monazite. Lagos is the capital and
important port. Railways, in all Nigeria
over 700 miles, connecting Lagos. Jebba,
Zungeru, and Kano; telegraph mileage,
6,000.

British Somaliland.-Became a protec-
torate 1884. Region extends from Lahadu
to Zlyada, with an area of 68,000 square
miles. Imports: chiefly rice, textiles. and
dates; exports: skins, hides, ostrich feath-
ers, cattle, sheep, and gum. Berbera, chief
town. (See also Union of South Africa.)

LIBERIA.-Country settled 1822 by free
negroes, sent out under American Col-
onization Society; declared independent,
1847. The coast lands are generally low
and sandy; interior hills and mountains
are covered with beautiful forests, diversi-
fied by well-watered, fertile valleys: the
largest rivers are St. Johns and St. Pauls.
Climate unhealthful, seasons wet and dry:
hottest month January; heat mitigated by
almost constant land and sea breezes. Cof-
fee-renowned for its excellence-and gin-
ger are chief products. Maize, rice, cotton,
arrowroot. sugar cane, cereals, and vege-
tables readily produced. Fruits are abun-
dant and finely flavored. Exports-Lead-
Ing articles, coffee, palm oil and palm
kernels, rubber. cocoa, sugar, arrowroot.
Ivory, hides, and piassava. Imports-tex-
tiles, clothing, provisions, hardware, tobac-
co, furniture, etc. Monrovia, capital.

GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA.
Region annexed by Germany in 1884. Pos-
sessions extend along the coast 930 miles.

EGYPT.-One of earliest seats of civil-
ization renowned alike for its great an-
tiquity and former splendor. Modern his-
tory begins with the conquest by Moham-
medans, 638 A.D.: taken by Mamelukes.
1250 became Turkish province, 1517: in-
vaded by Napoleon, 1798: restored to Tur-
key, 1801. The New era began with Me-

hemet All, founder of present dynasty;
reigned, 1805-49. The Suez Canal was
opened in 1869. A native revolt under
Alabi Pasha, 1881, suppressed by British;
English financial adviser appointed. Mah-
dists in Sudan revolted 1881-85; con-
quered, 1899. The great natural features
are the River Nile and the desert. The
Nile has its source in Victoria Nyanza;
by its annual inundation and deposit of
loam is great fertilizer of Egypt.

Climate of Upper Egypt continuously hot
and dry; farther north hot season is April-
November; temperate, December-March.
Rainfall scanty, except in delta. Vast res-
ervoir for flood waters of Nile at Assuan;
irrigated area constantly increasing. Per-
ennial irrigation assures two or three
crops annually; in winter, cereals; sum-
mer, cotton, sugar, and rice; autumn, rice,
maize, and vegetables. The Nile Valley
and delta are densely peopled. The Copts,
descendants of ancient Egyptians, dwell
chiefly in Upper Egypt. Arabic language
is spoken. Cairo, capital, on Nile; found-
ed by Saracens, 970; contains museum of
antiquities, mosques. Alexandria, founded
332 B.C., commercial center and chief sea-
port. Port Said, at mouth of Suez Canal.
Railways belonging to state, 1910, 1,449
miles. Government telegraphs, 1910, 3,450
Suez Canal, 87 miles long, con-
miles.
nects Mediterranean with Red Sea. Goy-
ernment, principality tributary to Turkey.
Power nominally in hands of Khedive and
Ministry, supported since 1882 by British
advisers.

Anglo-Egyptian Soudan extends from
Egyptian frontier to Uganda and Belgian
Congo and from Red Sea to confines of
Wadal. Chief towns: Khartum, Omdur-
man (capital, formerly Dervish capital),
Wady Halfa. Convention of 1899 pro-
vides for Governor-General appointed by
Egypt with consent of Great Britain.

TRIPOLI, conquered, successively by
Arabs and Turks, formed one of Barbary
States; independence secured, 1714; recon-
quered by Turkey, 1835. Attempted an-
nexation by Italy, and Turco-Italian war,
1911. Surface mostly desert; mountainous
in west and south. Coast line 800 miles;
chief harbor Tripoli. Imports: Cloth, to-
bacco, provisions, etc.: exports: ostrich
feathers, skins, hides, cauls, etc.

ABYSSINIA.-An independent empire,
bounded on the north by Eritrea, on the
east by Danakil country and Somaliland,
on the south and west by British East
Africa, and on the northwest by the Sudan.
It is the direct descendant of the ancient
Ethiopia, possesses an ancient and interest-
Ing national Christian church which owes
allegiance to the Coptic Patriarch of Alex-
andria,

ITALIAN POSSESSIONS. Eritrea.-
Colony of Eritrea constituted 1890. Assab
occupied 1880, town ard island of Massaua
1885. Colony now embraces coast of Red
Sea from Ras Kasar to Strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb, 670 miles. extending inland about
200 miles. Pearl fisheries at Massaua and
Dahlak Archipelago; industry in hands of
Banians (Indians). Massaua, fortified sea-
port and important center of commercial
exchange. Asmara, seat of government.

Ob-

Italian Somaliland.-Sultanate of
bia placed under Ifalian protection, 1889:
protectorate extended in 1892 and 1996.
By treaty of Adis Ababa, 1896. Italian
dominion restricted to strip of coast ex-
tending from Ras Alula to mouth of Juba
River.

FRENCH POSSESSIONS. · Obock and
Somali Coast Protectorate acquired by
France 1864. Situated on Gulf of Aden,
surrounded by Eritrea, Abyssinia, and

British Somaliland, extends inland about
forty miles. Trade chiefly with interior
countries. Chlef cities, Obock and Tajurah.

Africa:

Agents sent to, to receive slaves
taken from vessels, 633.

Citizens of United States must not

violate rights of inhabitants of, 396.
Natives of, in slavery. (See African
Slave Trade.)

Naval force of United States sta-
tioned on coast of, referred to,
2173, 3071.
Repressing liquor trade in, sugges-
tions made by Belgium, 6363, 6425.
Slavery on coast of, 4160.

Vessels of United States seized on
coast of, 1857, 3017.

Africa, The, attempted seizure of Mr.
Fauchet by commander of, 3344.
African Slave Trade.-Prior to the discov-
ery of America negroes, like other savage
races, either enslaved or put to death the
captives taken in war. The deportation of
the captives to the mines and plantations
of the New World increased the value of
the African and made slavery rather than
death the prisoner's fate. This disposition
of captives also led many petty chiefs to
wage war for the prospective gain in hu-
man chattels. The aborigines of America
having proved too weak for the work re-
quired of them, the Portuguese, who
possessed a large part of the African coast,
began the exportation of negroes, in which
they were imitated by other nations of the
Old World. Sir John Hawkins was the first
Englishman to engage in slave traffic. The
first importation of negro slaves was au-
thorized in 1517. Extreme cruelty and
inhuman treatment characterized their
transportation. They were landed at Haiti
and Santo Domingo and placed in the
mines. In 1619 a Dutch vessel brought a
cargo of slaves into the James River.
Twenty negroes were sold to Virginia
settlers. In 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht,
Great Britain obtained the contract for
supplying slaves to the Spanish West In-
dies. This stimulated the slave trade gen-
erally. Several of the Colonies attempted
to prohibit the importation of slaves, but
Great Britain forced the trade upon them.
Virginia passed several acts forbidding the
traffic, but they were vetoed by the Brit-
ish Government, as were also those passed
by Pennsylvania in 1712, 1714, and 1717,
and by Massachusetts in 1774.

Slavery was prohibited by Rhode Island
and Connecticut in 1774, and by all the
Colonies under the non-importation cove-
nant of Oct. 24, 1774, and forbidden by
nearly all the States during the Revolution.
The slave-trade question was an important
one in the formation of the Constitution.
The Southern States, except Virginia and
Maryland, insisted that no restriction
should be imposed upon the traffic.

A compromise was finally effected allow-
ing Congress to prohibit it after 1808. The
act of March 22, 1794, prohibited the carry-
ing of slaves from one foreign country to
another by American citizens: that of May
10, 1800, allowed United States war ships
to seize vessels engaged in such traffic;
that of Feb. 28, 1803, prohibited the in-
troduction of slaves into States which had
forbidden slavery. In 1808 the importa
tion of slaves into the United States was

forbidden. The acts of April 20, 1818, and
March 3, 1819, authorized the President to
send cruisers to the coast of Africa to
stop the slave trade. As no restrictions
were ever placed upon domestic slave trad-
ing before its abolition in 1865, the surrepti
tious trade in imported slaves was not en-
tirely given up until that time.
African Slave Trade. (See also Com-

promise of 1850; Kansas-Nebraska
Act; Missouri Compromise; Ne-
groes; Slavery.)

Abuses of United States flag referred
to, 2134.

Act for suppression of, referred to,
5621.

Agents sent to Africa to receive
slaves, 663.

American citizens engaged in, 2215.
Information regarding, requested,

2907.

Cargo of African negroes-
Captured on coast of Cuba, and re-

turn of to Africa, discussed, 3058,
3124, 3126.

Landed on coast of Georgia, re-
ferred to, 3065, 3069, 3086.
Stranded on coast of Florida, and
removal of, discussed, 967.
Ceased in United States, 3779.
Correspondence regarding

Referred to, 2268, 2287, 2426, 2428,
2538, 2765.

Surrender of slaves to United
States consul referred to, 1944.
Discussed by President-

Adams, J. Q., 875, 967.
Buchanan, 3086, 3124, 3126, 3180.
Lincoln, 3254.

Madison, 470, 562.

Monroe, 583, 631, 783, 812, 819.
Taylor, 2553.
Tyler, 2215.

Van Buren, 1836.

Excluded from use of United States
flag, 875.

Foreign slave traders discussed, 3446.
International congress at Brussels for

abolition of, 5471, 5543, 6363.
Interpretation given act prohibiting,

632.

Laws for suppression of—

Amendments recommended, 2553.
Should be more severe, 1903, 1931.
Liberation of slaves by authorities of
Nassau, New Providence, 2064.
Proposition to Great Britain to abol-

ish mixed courts created for sup-
pression of, 3989.
Treaty regarding, 4055.
Punishment for engaging in, should
be same as for piracy, 779, 812.
Referred to, 1755, 2064, 2173, 2202,
2219, 2268, 2587, 2630, 3015, 3071,
3121, 3185, 3413.
Removal of negroes-

Captured by American vessels, to

Liberia, recommended, 3058, 3124.

Captured on coast of Cuba, 3058,
3124, 3126.

Stranded on coast of Florida rec-

ommended, 967.

Seizure of slaves on board the En-
comium and Enterprise, 1499.
Suppression of and suggestions that
Great Britain be asked to discon-
tinue the naval force maintained
for its suppression, 3779.
Desired by Government, 631, 1836,
1930, 2082, 2215, 3086, 3254.
But interpolations into maritime
code not permitted, 1930.
Referred to, 649, 650, 651, 678, 827,
958, 1857, 2048, 2082, 2553, 3180.
Squadron kept on coast of Africa
for, 2173.

Treaty between five powers of Eu-
rope for, 2011.

Inquiry of Senate respecting,

and reply of President, 2068.
Protest of American minister to
France regarding, 2011, 2048,
2297.

Treaty with Great Britain regard-
ing, referred to, 810, 812, 819,
886, 2016, 2048, 2071, 2082, 3272,
3281, 3328, 3366, 3380, 4017.
Vessels transporting slaves should
be seized, 632, 783.

African Squadron, instruction to com-
manding officers of, referred to, 2173,
3071.

Agents, Indian. (See Indian Agents.)
Agitator.-A person who, either by speech
or action, endeavors to change existing con-
ditions. The term may be employed in a
complimentary sense as synonomous with
"reformer" (q. v.), but is often restricted to
a person who endeavors to disturb conditions
from ulterior or anti-constructive motives.
Agricultural Census recommended, 5982.
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment
Stations. (See Agriculture, Depart-
ment of.)

Agricultural Experiment Stations dis-
cussed, 5384, 5888, 5980, 6347.
Agricultural Implements. From the
earliest times and in all countries until the
beginning of the Nineteenth century agri-
culture was distinctly manual labor.
Horses and oxen were used for plowing and
harrowing, but the labor of planting, cul-
tivating and harvesting was all performed
by hand. Grain was sown broadcast by
hand, cut with a sickle, gathered with a
fork and thrashed out on the barn floor
with a club. Corn was cultivated with a
hoe and its husking was made a social
event of rural communities. By these
primitive methods the farmer was unable
to produce much of a surplus to exchange
for the fabrics of the cities or for export.
The only part of America where farming
proved a commercial success was in the
South, where slave labor was employed in
the cultivation of cotton and tobacco. The
invention of the cotton gin, though not
strictly a farm implement, made a com.

mercial crop of a plant theretofore of only
ordinary domestic value.

From the first turning of the soil to the
gathering of the crops American inventive
genius has lightened the labor and in-
creased the profits of agriculture so that
the farmers today enjoy a greater amount
of comfort and wealth than any other class
of citizens.

Prior to 1850 the manufacture of agri-
cultural implements could hardly be con-
sidered as more than a hand trade, and
in no sense as a factory industry, as the
term is at present understood. Ideas had
been evolved, and, on a small scale, exe-
cuted, which contained much that the im-
proved processes and facilities of the lat-
ter part of the century brought to complete
fruition. Implements were made in small
shops with an average capital of $2,674
per establishment. The evolution of the
manufacture from the small shops of the
blacksmith and wheelwright to the im-
mense establishments of the present day
embodies all the phases of the develop-
ment of the modern factory system.
a large western plant 600 men, by the aid
of machinery, do the work that, without
machinery would require 2,145 men.

The McCormick reaper was first put on
the market as a successful machine for the
harvest of 1845. In 1847 the exports of
wheat and flour jumped to $32,178,161,
about five times the average of the pre-
ceding forty years, and increased rapidly
to 1860. The wheat crop, which had not
kept pace with the growth of population
from 1839 to 1849, gained more than 70
per cent in the decade between 1849 and
1859, and from a total crop of 84,823,272
bushels in 1845 increased to nearly a bil-
lion bushels in 1915. Cyrus H. McCormick
inherited the idea of making a grain
reaper from his father, who had patented
an imperfect revolving scythe in 1816.
The essential elements which made the
reaper finally successful were the reel, the
divider, the reciprocating knife, and the
platform. Later a self-raking attachment
took the place of the man who had raked
the grain by hand from the platform.

The Marsh harvesting machine had
toothed belts which carried the grain from
the platform over the master wheel to two
men who stood on a footboard and bound
the sheaves
tables attached to
on
the
machine. By 1875 twine binding attach-
ments had been patented.

The automatic self binder, invented by
John F. Appleby, seems to have been the
culminating improvement made in grain
harvesting machines, and is used in one
form or another as an attachment to the
harvester to bind by far the largest part
of the grain harvested in this and other
countries. Now a million binders are in
use on American farms and a large export
business has grown up. Through the use
of American harvesting machines Argen-
tina, Australia and Russia have become
large exporters of wheat, and single car-
goes shipped to Europe contain more of
these machines than the entire output of
any European manufacturer in this line.
In Kansas, Nebraska and other Western
States, headers are used, which cut off the
stalk just below the head, elevate the
wheat into a wagon ready to be hauled to
the thrasher. and leave the straw standing.
In California, Oregon and Washington the
combined harvester carries a thrashing at-
tachment, which is operated by the trac-
tion wheel, so that a wide swath is cut and
thrashed and delivered in bags as the
machine is drawn across the field by horses
or a traction engine.

The mowing machine, the corn planter

and the two-horse cultivator, distinctively
American inventions, have served the same
purpose in promoting the production of
corn and hay as the reaper in the cereal
fields. Farmers were unable to produce
live stock, poultry and dairy products on
a commercial scale until they had labor
saving machinery for the cheap production
of hay and corn.

The principal steps in the development
of the harvesting machine are recorded in
the Patent Office as follows:

Reapers-Harvester, handraker, 1855;
self-raker, 1856; dropper, 1861; adjustable
switch reel rakes, 1865, 1875, 1879 and
1884.

Harvester Binders-Cord knotter, 1853;
wire twister, 1856; straw braid twister,
1857; gleaner and binder, 1862; self-trip-
ping cord knotter, 1867; wire twister,
1868; automatic trip. 1870: straw looper,
1870; vibrating binder, 1875; low-down
binder, 1878; compressor automatic trip,
1879; low-down oblique delivery, 1884.

Bean and Clover Harvesters-Clover har-
vester, 1849; clover stripping drum har-
vester, 1854; clover head cutter and
breaker, 1856; bean stalk cutter and
bundler, 1859; clover spiral drum bar-
vester, 1861; bean underground cutter,
1865; clover head stripper, 1877; bean
stalk puller, 1879.

Corn Harvesters-Cutter, 1844; ear
stripper, 1850; ear stripper, husker and
sheller, 1850; cutter and shocker, 1852,
1854, 1856; high and low cutter, 1859;
cutter and shocker, 1866; picker and
husker, 1867; picker, husker and shocker,
1869 cutter. husker and shocker, 1875.

Cotton Harvesters Toothed picking
disks and cylinders, 1850; hand picker,
1855; brush stripper, 1859; exhaust flex-
ible pipe, 1859; fan blower, 1868; saw
and stripper brush. 1870: electric belt,
1870; picker stem, 1872 toothed cylinder,
1874, 1883; revolving picker stems, 1878,
1901.

Hemp and Flax Harvesters-Revolving
pulling drum and band, 1838; roller, 1852
reciprocating, pulling jaw, 1863; stalk
puller, 1866; side delivery, 1870, 1871;
stalk cutter, 1872.

Combined Reapers and Thrashers-
Reaper and thrasher, 1836 thrasher, sep-
arator and sacker, 1846; head cutter and
side deliverer, 1849; harvester and
thrasher, 1877; steam harvester. 1879;
header, thrasher and separator. 1883.

Horse Rakes-Flopover. 1822: spring
tooth, 1839: dumping sulky, 1848: draft
dumping, 1850; self dumping, 1852: spring
tooth self dumning, 1856: draft dumping,
1856, 1859, 1866, 1876, 1884; drag dump-
ing, 1866, 1870.

Horse Hay Forks-Spiral fork, 1867;
harpoon, 1867, 1884. 1881 tilting, 1870;
grapple, 1880; handfork, 1882.

Hay Rackers and Loaders-1848, 1850,
1858, 1860, 1861, 1864, 1865, 1867, 1868,
1870, 1876, 1883.

Hay Tedders-1855, 1861, 1862, 1865,
1867, 1870, 1883.

Next to harvesting machines the thrash-
ing machine is the most important feature
of the equipment of modern agriculture.
The "ground hog" thrasher came into use
early in the nineteenth century. Thrash-
Ing mills, with fanning and screening de-
vices, were set up in England in 1800, but
these were stationed at some central point,
and the grain had to be hauled to them.
The first portable thrashing machine with
cleaning devices was made by Hiram A.
and John A. Pitts, of Winthrop, Me., in
1830. and George Westinghouse began
making thrashing machines in Fonda, N. Y.,
about 1840. He later removed to Sche

nectady, N. Y., and patented a number of
useful improvements in separating and
cleaning devices. A notable improvement
is the "wind stacker," by which the straw
is blown by a revolving fan through a
large steel pipe to the straw stack, thus
saving the labor of several men. Auto-
matic band cutting and feeding attach-
ments and automatic grain weighers have
also come into general use, and traction
engines to replace horses in the field have
gained new impetus from the use of the
internal combustion engine and wider
knowledge of the auto truck.

The grain drill is a recent implement
of economy on the farm. The first patent
for a force feed grain drill was issued to
Foster, Jessup & Brown, of Palmyra, N. Y.,
in 1851, and their general use came with
the use of commercial fertilizer.

The first patent on a practical corn
planter was issued to George W. Brown,
of Illinois, in 1853, and improved by George
D. Haworth, of the same State.

Corn cultivators are made in a great
variety of forms, but the essential feature
of all is an arched axle which straddles the
row, is drawn by two horses, and has two
gangs, or frames, one on each side of the
row, which swing freely under direction of
the operator, who may ride or walk. Corn
binders and pickers are also manufactured,
as well as portable huskers and fodder
shredders. Power corn shellers have been
in use since 1860, and are indispensable
wherever corn is grown for shipment to
market. The first successful machine of
this type was invented by Augustus Adams,
of Sandwich, Ill.

The plow in primitive form antedates
history, and, while it appears to be a
simple implement, the improved American
plow of today is the product of slow evo-
lution, careful study and much mechanical
skill. Efforts at improvement have been
largely directed toward establishing upon
a mathematical basis the proper lines of
the moldboard which raises and turns the
furrow slice. President Thomas Jefferson
published his views on this subject in 1798.
Jethro Wood, of Scipio, N. Y., took out a
patent in 1819 for a plow with a mold-
board in three separate pieces, so they could
be replaced by new parts when worn.

Among the names that will ever be as-
sociated with the plow in America are John
Deere, pioneer inventor and manufacturer,
whose establishment at Moline, Ill., sup-
plied the West for many years, and James
Oliver, whose perfection of the chilled steel
plowshare was an important step in ad-
vanced manufacture.

The history of steam plowing dates from
the inventions of Fowler and Smith in
1854. The plows are in gangs of twelve
to eighteen and are drawn by traction
engines of from 40 to 80 horsepower.

Machinery for shelling, sorting, sifting
or grading according to size the various
vegetable and root crops forms an exten-
sive industry in itself.

Agricultural implements in general are
divided into four groups-those of culti
vation, seeding and planting, harvesting,
and seed separating. These groups in turn
are subdivided into numerous classes, as in-
dicated in the accompanying table. At the
census of 1849, 1,333 establishments were
reported as engaged in the manufacture of
agricultural implements, the number of
hands employed being 7,220, and the value
of their products amounted to $6.842,611.
In 1869 the number of factories had in-
creased to 2,076. These were compara-
tively small establishments, their aggregate
capital amounting to only $34,834.600, and
their output being valued at little more

than $52,000,000. In 1909 through com-
bining shops and capital the number of
establishments had fallen to 640, the capi-
tal had increased to $256,281,086, and the
value of the output to $146,329,268.

Of the 772 establishments engaged in the
industry in 1914, 86 were located in Illinois,
67 in Ohio, 61 in Wisconsin, 58 in New
York, 49 in Pennsylvania, 45 in California,
42 in Indiana, 40 each in Iowa and Michi-
gan, 35 in Minnesota, 27 in Missouri, 25 in
Tennessee, 22 each in North Carolina and
Virginia, 18 in Georgia, 14 in Vermont, 12
in Kansas, 11 in Maine, 10 each in Alabama
and New Jersey, 7 each in Kentucky, Massa-
chusetts, Nebraska, and Washington, 6 each
in Connecticut and Mississippi, 5 in Texas, 4
in Colorado, 3 each in Arkansas, Florida,
Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, South
Carolina, and South Dakota, 2 each in
Idaho, Oklahoma, and West Virginia, and 1
each in Louisiana and Montana.