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have precedence over the less. Accordingly, when Anna Romanoff, daughter of Peter the Great, married Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, the offspring of that union was held to be more Romanoff than Holstein-Gottorp. The Holstein-Gottorp alliance, however, was not ignored, and Peter III and all subsequent sovereigns were credited to the "House of Romanoff-Holstein."

There was thus a certain fitness in the circumstance that this German dynasty which long had tyrannized over Russia should come to an end in a war with Germany, and as one of the results of that war.

NIHILISM AND BIGOTRY

The end of Czarism was precipitated partly by Nihilism and its crimes of violence, which maintained a reign of terror throughout the Empire while Alexander III was on the throne, and partly by the bigotry of the Procurator of the Holy Synod, who during that period was the power behind the throne. This fanatical ecclesiastic persuaded the Czar that the murder of his father and the other woes of Russia had been judgments of heaven, as punishment for laxity of faith and for too great tolerance of Jews and Dissenters. Accordingly a vast campaign of persecution was maintained, with repeated "pogroms" or massacres of Jews, and these things were continued in the reign of Nicholas II.

These things, added to the great losses of the war with Japan, led to widespread disaffection among the Russian people, and the organization of a revolutionary movement. In January, 1905, occurred "Red Sunday." A great multitude of workingmen, led by a priest, approached the Winter Palace for the purpose of presenting a petition to the Czar for an increase of civil rights. They were

entirely peaceful in their demeanor, and offered no violence whatever. But the troops fired upon them, and hundreds were slain.

CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT

There followed general disorder throughout the Empire, until in October, 1905, the Czar proclaimed a constitution and the establishment of a Duma, or national Parliament. The latter body met for the first time in April, 1906. It was dissolved on July 8th, having done little or nothing. A second Duma met in March, 1907, and had a stormy and ineffective career. The third met in December, 1907, and became a really authoritative and efficient legislative body. Thereafter there was a persistent fight for extension of parliamentary and popular power, and restriction of the autocratic powers of the Czar. In this struggle the democracy made slow but steady gains, and Russia was moving toward a genuine constitutional system.

The outbreak of the great war found government and people apparently united for a vigorous and unrelenting prosecution of the campaign. It was at the beginning of September, 1914, that the Czar by personal decree changed the name of the capital to Petrograd, and that moment marked the zenith of his reign. Soon there began to be perceptible indications of German influence. This was not sufficient to cause Russia's withdrawal from the war. But it did seriously hamper and at times defeat the operations of the armies. German spies continually betrayed Russian military plans to the enemy; and those spies were members of the court circle, if not of the imperial family. Worse than that, supplies of arms and ammunition were withheld from the Russian army, thus dooming it to defeat. The great disasters in Poland were probably

chiefly attributable to this cause. The Russian army was without supplies, although there were abundant supplies in the hands of the government.

THE END OF THE CZARS

This treason was fatal to the dynasty, which was not unreasonably held responsible for it. The people were incensed, and, of course, the army was too. In consequence the army, instead of supporting the throne against the people, as thitherto, became itself the leader in revolutionary aspirations, and manifested a readiness to join with the people in overthrowing a dynasty which was the tool of alien foes. In March, 1917, came the end. There was a wholesale uprising of the people against the Czar. Some violence and loss of life occurred, but the troops in general mutinied and fraternized with the people. The Czar and his family were taken as prisoners of state, and the abdication of Nicholas II in behalf of his brother was exacted. After brief consideration, that brother declined to accept the crown unless he should be elected Czar by the free votes of the Russian people.

A few days later the leaders of the Duma, who were in control of the government, decided not to retain the monarchy, but to organize a republican form of government, and to remove from office all members of the Romanoff or Holstein-Gottorp family, even including the Grand Duke Nicholas who had been so efficient and loyal a leader of the Russian army. Czarism had partially betrayed

Russia, and Russia was done with Czarism and with all in any way connected with it. The Russian Empire was ended; the Russian Republic was begun.

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CHAPTER VI

THE ALLIED POWERS

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France and Her Vital Interests in the War - Germany's Former Attempts to Destroy Her and then to Woo Her as an Ally - The Russian Alliance - The Entente Cordiale between France and Great Britain - Practically a Triple Entente Belgium as a Neutral State Animosity between Great Britain and Germany Why Great Britain was Compelled to Enter the War Japan Drawn into Alliance with Her Former Foe - Italy's Anomalous Position in the Triple Alliance - Her Reason for Withdrawing from It and for Entering the War against Her Former Allies Portugal an Old Ally of Great Britain.

THERE ARE no such things as traditional friends or traditional foes among the nations of the world. That fact is writ clear and large in the alignment of the powers in the great war. There are among the important European belligerents scarcely two enemies which were not formerly allies, and scarcely two allies which were not formerly foes. Observe:

Great Britain and Germany, or in the last analysis England and Prussia, are the bitterest of all foes. Yet, never before were they at war with each other, but in the last preceding general European war, which ended at Waterloo, they were allies. Russia and Germany are foes; yet never before did they fight each other, but more than once were allies. Italy is at war with Germany, but it is for the first time, and Prussia was practically Italy's ally in 1866 and 1870.

Great Britain and France are allies; yet they have hitherto fought each other more than any other two powers of Europe. They are both allies of Russia, yet they both fought Russia in the Crimea. Russia and Japan are

allies; yet only a few years ago they were foes in a mighty war. Germany and Austria are allies; but they were foes in 1866.

GERMANY'S DRIVE AT FRANCE

Of all the warring powers, France had at the beginning perhaps the most vital interest in the war. It was to her a matter of life or death. The ancient quarrel, dating from the time of Charlemagne's sons, between her and Germany, was revived in 1870 by Germany on the strength of a falsified dispatch, deliberately falsified by Otto von Bismarck in order to drag France into war. As a result of that war France was robbed of two provinces and of a cash indemnity so vast that it was supposed she would be unable to pay it, or that in paying it she would be hopelessly impoverished and ruined. To the chagrin of Germany, she paid it promptly and regained more than her old prosperity; whereupon a few years later Germany sought to force another war upon her with the confessed intention of "bleeding her white." The diplomatic intervention of Great Britain balked this scheme of Germany's, and thus planted the seeds of that hatred of Great Britain which Germany has ever since cherished. Then Germany devoted herself to the incitement of enmity between France and Great Britain and also to efforts to induce France to join her in war against the "modern Carthage," as German statesmen called the United Kingdom.

France spurned these German overtures, and instead entered at first into an entente and then into a complete alliance with Russia. Under the diplomatic influence of Edward VII of England the irritation and estrangement which had for some time existed between France and Great Britain, largely through German marplotry, were

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