own merchants are kept and treated in their country." (a) And it is also stated in the report of the English civilians, in 1753, before referred to, in order to enforce their argument that the King of Prussia could not justly extend his reprisals to the Silesian loan, that "French ships and effects, wrongfully taken, after the Spanish war, and before the French war, have, during the heat of the war with France, and since, been restored by sentence of your Majesty's courts to the French owners. No such ships or effects ever were attempted to be confiscated as enemy's property, here, during the war; because, had it not been for the wrong first done, these effects would not have been in your Majesty's dominions."

Droits of

§ 302. The ancient law of England seems thus to have Admiralty. surpassed in liberality its modern practice. In the recent maritime wars commenced by that country, it has been the constant usage to seize and condemn as droits of admiralty the property of the enemy found in its ports at the breaking out of hostilities; and this practice does not appear to have been influenced by the corresponding conduct of the enemy in that respect. As has been observed by an English writer, commenting on the judgment of Sir W. Scott in the case of the Dutch ships, "there seems something of subtlety in the distinction between the virtual and the actual declaration of hostilities, and in the device of giving to the actual declaration a retrospective efficacy, in order to cover the defect of the virtual declaration previously implied." (a)

Seizure

property

in the terri

of the bel

ligerent State, on

war,

§ 303. During the war between the United States and of enemy's Great Britain, which commenced in 1812, it was deterfound with mined by the Supreme Court, that the enemy's property torial limits found within the territory of the United States on the declaration of could not be seized and condemned the declara- as prize of war, without some legislative act expressly tion of war. authorizing its confiscation. The court held that the law of Congress declaring war was not such an act. That declaration did not, by its own operation, so vest the property of the enemy in the government, as to support judicial proceedings for its seizure and confiscation. It vested only a right to confiscate, the assertion of which depended on the will of the sovereign power.

(a) The Santa Cruz, Robinson's Adm. Rep. i. 64.

(a) Chitty's Law of Nations, ch. 8, p. 50.

Opinion

Supreme

Brown v.

States.

§ 304. The judgment of the Court stated, that the universal practice of forbearing to seize and confiscate debts of the and credits, the principle universally received, that the Court, in right to them revives on the restoration of peace, would United seem to prove that war is not an absolute confiscation of this property, but that it simply confers the right of confiscation. Between debts contracted under the faith of laws, and property acquired in the course of trade on the faith of the same laws, reason draws no distinction; and although, in practice, vessels with their cargoes found in port at the declaration of war may have been seized, it was not believed that modern usage would sanction the seizure of the goods of an enemy on land, which were acquired in peace in the course of trade. Such a proceeding was rare, and would be deemed a harsh exercise of the rights of war. But although the practice in this respect might not be uniform, that circumstance did not essentially affect the question. The inquiry was, whether such property vests in the sovereign by the mere declaration of war, or remains subject to a right of confiscation, the exercise of which depends upon the national will: and the rule which applies to one case, so far as respects the operation of a declaration of war on the thing itself, must apply to all others over which war gives an equal right. The right of the sovereign to confiscate debts being precisely the same with the right to confiscate other property found in the country, the operation of a declaration of war on debts, and on other property found within the country, must be the same.

Even Bynkershoek, who maintains the broad principle, that in war every thing done against an enemy is lawful; that he may be destroyed, though unarmed and defenceless; that fraud, or even poison, may be employed against him; that a most unlimited right is acquired to his person and property, admits that war does not transfer to the sovereign a debt due to his enemy; and, therefore, if payment of such debt be not exacted, peace revives the former right of the creditor; "because," he says, "the occupation which is had by war consists more in fact than in law." He adds to his observations on this subject: "Let it not, however, be supposed that it is only true of actions that they are not condemned ipso jure, for other things also belonging to the enemy may be concealed and escape confiscation." (a)

(a) Quod dixi de actionibus recte publicandis, ita demum obtinet, si, quod subditi

Vattel says, that "the sovereign can neither detain the persons nor the property of those subjects of the enemy, who are within his dominions at the time of the declaration."

It was true that this rule was, in terms, applied by Vattel to the property of those only who are personally within the territory at the commencement of hostilities; but it applied equally to things in action and to things in possession; and if war did, of itself, without any further exercise of the sovereign will, vest the property of the enemy in the sovereign, the presence of the owner could not exempt it from this operation of war. Nor could a reason be perceived for maintaining that the public faith is more entirely pledged for the security of property, trusted in the territory of the nation in time of peace, if it be accompanied by its owner, than if it be confided to the care of others.

The modern rule, then, would seem to be, that tangible property belonging to an enemy, and found in the country at the commencement of war, ought not to be immediately confiscated; and in almost every commercial treaty an article is inserted, stipulating for the right to withdraw such property.

This rule appeared to be totally incompatible with the idea, that war does, of itself, vest the property in the belligerent government. It might be considered as the opinion of all who have written on the jus belli, that war gives the right to confiscate, but does not itself confiscate, the property of the enemy; and the rules laid down by these writers went to the exercise of this right.

The Constitution of the United States was framed at a time when this rule, infroduced by commerce in favor of moderation and humanity, was received throughout the civilized world. In expounding that Constitution, a construction ought not lightly to

nostri hostibus nostris debent, princeps a subditis suis reverà exegerit. Si exegerit, rectè solutum est, si non exegerit, pace factâ reviviscit jus pristinum creditoris, quia occupatio quæ bello fit, magis in facto quam in potestate juris consistit. Nomina igitur, non exacta, tempore belli quodammodo intermori videntur, sed per pacem, genere quodam postliminii, ad priorem dominum reverti. Secundum hæc inter gentes ferè convenit, ut nominibus bello publicatis, pace deinde factâ, exacta censeantur periisse, et maneant extincta, non autem exacta reviviscant, et restituantur veris creditoribus. . . Noli autem existimare, de actionibus duntaxat verum esse, eas ipso jure non publicari, nam nec alia quæque publicantur, quæ apud hostes, sunt et ibi fortè celantur. Unde et ea, quæ apud hostes ante bellum exortum habebamus, indictoque bello suppressa erant, atque ita non publicata, si a nostris denuo recuperentur, non fieri recuperantium, sed pristinis dominis restitui, rectè responsum Consil. Belg. t. iii. Consil. 67. Bynkershoek, Quæst. Jur. Pub. lib. i. cap. 7.

est.

be admitted, which would give to a declaration of war an effect in this country it did not possess elsewhere, and which would fetter the exercise of that entire discretion respecting enemy's property, which might enable the government to apply to the enemy the rule which he applied to us.

This general reasoning would be found to be much strengthened by the words of the Constitution itself- That the declaration of war had only the effect of placing the two nations in a state of hostility, of producing a state of war, of giving those rights which war confers; but not of operating, by its own force, any of those results - such as a transfer of property — which are usually produced by ulterior measures of government, was fairly deducible from the enumeration of powers which accompanied that of declaring war: -"Congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water."

It would be restraining this clause within narrower limits than the words themselves import, to say that the power to make rules concerning captures on land and water was to be confined to captures which are extra-territorial. If it extended to rules respecting enemy's property found within the territory, then the Court perceived an express grant to Congress of the power in question as an independent, substantive power, not included in that of declaring war.

The acts of Congress furnished many instances of an opinion, that the declaration of war does not, of itself, authorize proceedings against the persons or property of the enemy found at the time within the territory.

War gives an equal right over persons and property; and if its declaration was not considered as prescribing a law respecting the person of an enemy found in our country, neither did it prescribe a law for his property. The act concerning alien enemies, which conferred on the President very great discretionary powers respecting their persons, afforded a strong implication that he did not possess those powers by virtue of the declaration of war.

66

The act for the safe-keeping and accommodation of prisoners of war," was of the same character.

The act prohibiting trade with the enemy contained this clause:"That the President of the United States be, and he is hereby authorized to give, at any time within six months after the passage

of this act, passports for the safe transportation of any ship or other property belonging to British subjects, and which is now within the limits of the United States."

The phraseology of this law showed that the property of a British subject was not considered by the legislature as being vested in the United States by the declaration of war; and the authority which the act conferred on the President was manifestly considered as one which he did not previously possess.

The proposition that a declaration of war does not, in itself, enact a confiscation of the property of the enemy within the territory of the belligerent, was believed to be entirely free from doubt. Was there in the act of Congress, by which war was declared against Great Britain, any expression which would indicate such an intention ?

That act, after placing the two nations in a state of war, authorizes the President to use the whole land and naval force of the United States, to carry the war into effect; and "to issue to private armed vessels of the United States commissions, or letters of marque and general reprisal, against the vessels, goods, and effects of the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the subjects thereof."

That reprisals may be made on enemy's property found within the United States at the declaration of war, if such be the will of the nation, had been admitted; but it was not admitted that, in the declaration of war, the nation had expressed its will to that effect.

It could not be necessary to employ argument in showing, that when the attorney for the United States institutes proceedings at law for the confiscation of enemy's property found on land, or floating in one of our creeks, in the care and custody of one of our citizens, he is not acting under the authority of letters of marque and reprisal, still less under the authority of such letters issued to a private armed vessel.

The act "concerning letters of marque, prizes, and prize goods," certainly contained nothing to authorize that seizure.

There being no other act of Congress which bore upon the subject, it was considered as proved that the legislature had not confiscated enemy's property, which was within the United States. at the declaration of war, and that the sentence of condemnation, pronounced in the court below, could not be sustained.