*XCVI. The executive government of these provinces is that [*114] of a Hospodar or Woivode, elected by the inhabitants. This right of election, and that of administrative and legislative independence and inviolability of territory, constitute the principal privileges acquired by capitulation from the Porte.

By the Treaty of Bucharest, in 1812, the third part of Moldavia was ceded by the Porte to Russia. The rest of Moldavia and Wallachia was restored to Turkey, with a special provision for the privileges of the inhabitants of Moldavia.(g)

By the Treaty of Ackerman, in 1826, it was stipulated that the Hospodars should be nominated for seven years, and be liable to be deposed by the Suzerain or by the protecting power.

But by the Treaty of Adrinople, signed three years later, it was stipulated that the Hospodars should be appointed for life. By the Treaty of Balta-Liman, of the 1st of May, 1849, it is agreed that the Hospodars should be appointed by the Sultan for a term not exceeding seven years; that two Commissioners should be appointed for the reformation of abuses, whose proposed alterations were to be submitted to the cabinets of St. Petersburgh and the Porte; and that the consent of both of them should be obtained previous to their promulgation, by a hattischeriff of the Sultan.

XCVII. Servia is not exactly in the same category as the provinces which have been first mentioned.

Servia Proper contains about a million of inhabitants; but the Servian race is said to amount to above five mi.lions in number and to occupy one-third of the European territories of Turkey, and all the south of Hungary.

In the middle ages the Chief of this people assumed the title of Emperor of the East, and was only subdued by the united forces of the adjoining nations.

The Servian empire was at last divided between Austria and the Porte. By the Treaty of Passarowitz, in 1718, the Porte ceded the north of Servia, with the capital Belgrade, *to Austria, but regained this [*115] territory by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739. In 1801 the struggle of the Servians for liberty began to be aided-at first secretly, and after 1809 openly-by Russia; and the Treaty of Bucharest, in 1812, between Russia and the Porte, contained in its eighth article a provision securing, among other things, to the natives the internal administration of their affairs, on the payment of a moderate contribution to Turkey. In 1813 the Servian insurrection broke out again, but, no longer assisted by Russia, was put down with circumstances of horrible barbarity. The Servians applied in vain to the Congress of Vienna for the mediation of Christendom in their favour. But the Greek insurrection in 1821, and the subsequent independence of Greece, operated favourably upon the condition of Servia; and it is now recognized by the European Powers as a distinct and independent nation, governed by a native Prince. The

(2) The Treaty of Sistowe secured Moldavia to the Porte in the same condition as formerly.

Turks have, indeed, a garrison at Belgrade: but Foreign Powers send Consuls to Servia, whose exæquatur emanates from the Sovereign of the country.

Beside the Treaty of Bucharest, already mentioned, between Russia and the Porte, the Treaties of Ackermann in 1826,(r) and of Adrinople in 1829, are to be consulted *for the national Status of Servia, as well as for that of the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.(s)

[*116]

XCVIII. With respect to Montenegro, the Danubian principalities, and Servia, an International question of some delicacy and difficulty arises-namely, To what extent the Protectorate of Austria or Russia over the Christian subjects of the Porte, in matters relating to their religion, has been allowed by custom or by treaty to extend?

This point will receive further discussion in a later part of this work, when the Right of Intervention is considered.

XCIX. In all the foregoing instances, though they may exhibit a greater or a less derogation from the rights of independent Sovereignty (excepting perhaps the case of Servia), the attribute of free and uncontrolled agency in their external relations with Foreign States is wanting.

C. States that pay tribute, or stand in a feudal relation towards other States, are, nevertheless, sometimes considered as Independent Sovereignties. It was not till 1818 that the King of Naples ceased to be a nominal vassal of the Papal See; but this feudal relation was never considered as affecting his position in the Commonwealth of States. Of the same

kind some German Jurists appear to consider the subsisting relation between Kniphausen and Oldenburgh; but, in fact, it is a relation which can hardly be said to exist in these days, except where, as in the instan

(~) Extract from Convention between the Ottoman Porte and Russia, signed at Ackermann, September 25th, 1826.-Acte séparé relatif á la Servie:

"La Sublime Porte, dans l'unique intention de remplir fidèlement les stipulations de l'Article VIII. du Traité de Bucharest, ayant précédemment permis aux députés Serviens à Constantinople de lui présenter les demandes de leur nation, sur les objets les plus convenables pour consolider la sûreté et le bien-être du pays, ces députés avaient précédemment exposé dans leur requête le vœu de la nation relativement à quelques-uns de ces objets, tel que la liberté du culte, le choix de ses chefs, l'indépendance de son administration intérieure, la rêunion des districts dêtachés de la Servie, la réunion des différents impôts en un seul, l'abandon aux Serviens de la régie des biens appartenants à des Musulmans, à charge d'en payer le revenu ensemble avec le tribut, la liberté de commerce, la permission aux négociants Serviens de voyager dans les Etats Ottomans avec leurs propres passeports, l'établissement d'hôpitaux, écoles et imprimeries, et enfin la défense aux Musulmans, autres que ceux appartenants aux garnisons, de s'établir en Servie. Tandis que l'on s'occupait à vérifier et à régler les articles ci-dessus spécifiés, certains empêchements servenus en motivèrent l'ajournement. Mais la Sublime Porte persistant aujourd'hui encore dans la ferme résolution d'accorder à la nation Servienne les avantages stipulés dans l'Article VIII. du Traité de Bucharest, elle réglera, de concert avec les deputés Serviens à Constantinople, les demandes ci-dessus mentionnées de cette nation fidèle et soumise, comme aussi toutes les autres qui lui seraient présentées par la députation Servienne, et qui ne seront point contraires à la qualité de sujets de l'empire Ottoman."-De Martens et De Cussy, Rec. de Traités et Conventions, vol. iv. pp. 40, 41.

(s) De Martens et De Cussy, Rec. de Tr. Treaty of Bucharest, t. ii. p. 393. Treaty of Ackermann, t. iv. p. 40. Treaty of Adrinople, ib. p. 223. Wheaton's History, p. 558.

ces of the Barbary States, there is a direct and practical acknowledgment of a superior Sovereignty.

*CI. Eleventhly.-The Status of Egypt with respect to its [*117] International relations is very peculiar.

Under the rule of the Mamelukes, Egypt had assumed the shape of an Independent State, though owing an allegiance of a feudal character, and being tributary to the Porte.

After the destruction of the Mamelekes, the then Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, endeavoured to establish an entirely independent kingdom. This endeavour led to the Intervention--which will be more fully considered hereafter-of the principal European Powers in the conflict between the Sultan and the Pacha, and the Convention of July, 1840.(t)

On November 3, 1839, the Porte published an Ordinance for the regulation of its provinces and of its vassal States, called Hatti Sheriff of Gulhané.(u) This Hatti Sheriff was followed by the promulgation of a collection of Laws called the Tanzimat, and this, with certain modifications, has been applied to Egypt by a Firman decoré d'un Hatti Sheriff, (x) of July, 1852. This Firman appears to overrule the Code d'Abbas, which the present Pacha had established in Egypt.

This Firman can hardly be said to affect the International relations of the Pacha; the principal derogation from the Sovereignty of the latter consisting in the reservation to the Sultan of the power as to life and death over the subjects of the Pacha.(y)

*In the Separate Act annexed to the Convention, concluded

[*118] at London, on the 15th of July, 1840, between the Courts of

Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, on the one part, and the sublime Ottoman Porte, on the other, the International Status of Egypt is described in the following articles :

"1. His Highness promises to grant to Mehemet Ali, for himself and

(t) See the Acte de Soumission, in the Firman du 13 Février, 1841; Correspondence relative to the Affairs of the Levant, vol. ii. 735 (London, 1841).

(u) See the Morning Chronicle, 27 November, 1839; the Times, 24 October, 1839, (x) This has not yet been published, but it describes itself as-"Firman addessé à mon illustre et judicieux Vizir Abbas Halmi Pacha, actuellement et héréditairement Gouverneur de l'Egypte, avec le rang éminent de Grand Vizir."

(y) The following are extracts from this Firman:-" Comme résultat salutaire de ces sentimens les Tauzimati-Hairiyé qui renferment les principes d'équité et de justice que la Loi Sainte dont les bases sont inébranlables, preserit, ont été institués, j'ai réussi à faire exécuter ces Tauzimat qui conformément à mon HattiSheriff qui a été lu, il y a quelques temps, sur la Place de Ghiulkaneh assurent complètement la vie, la propriété, et l'honneur de toutes les classes des sejuts de ma Sublime Porte établis dans mes états.

"D'après les lois générales de ma Sublime Porte, l'exécution des criminels qui doivent être mis à la Porte, soit en vertu de la loi du talion, soit par mesure d'administration, après les formalités nécessaires d'une enquête juridique et conforme aux lois réglementaires dépend absolument de mes ordres souverains.

"Lorsque tu auras pris connaissance des mes ordres souverains, tu auras, &c., soin que désormais aucune autorité, aucun employé n'ait à contrevenir en la moindre chose aux Tauzimat-Hairiyé, et tu mettras en pratique toutes les dispositions et tous les réglemens qui sont contenus dans le statut susmentionné. ***

"Ayes-le pour entendu et ajoutes foi au noble chiffre dont est orné le présent commandement Impérial, doné dans la dernière dizaine du mois Ramazan l'an mil deux cents soixante huit (vers la mi-Juillet, 1852.)

for his descendants in the direct line, the administration of the Pachalic of Egypt; and his Highness promises, moreover, to grant to Mehemet Ali for his life, with the title of Pacha of Acre, and with the command of the fortress of Saint John of Acre, the administration of the southern part of Syria, the limits of which shall be determined by the following line of demarcation:

"This line, beginning at Cape Ras-el-Nakhora, on the coast of the Mediterranean, shall extend direct from thence as far as the mouth of the River Seizaban, at the northern extremity of the Lake of Tiberias. It shall pass along the western shore of that lake. It shall follow the right of the River Jordan and the western shore of the Dead Sea. From thence it shall extend straight to the Red Sea, which it shall strike at the northern point of the gulph of Akaba; and from thence *it shall follow the western shore of the gulph of Akaba, and the eastern shore of the gulph of Suez, as far as Suez.

[*119]

“3. The annual tribute to be paid to the Sultan by Mehemet Ali shall be proportioned to the greater or less amount of territory of which the latter may obtain the administration, according as he accepts the first or the second alternative.

“5. All the Treaties and all the Laws of the Ottoman Empire shall be applicable to Egypt and to the Pachalic of Acre, such as it has been above defined, in the same manner as to every other part of the Ottoman Empire. But the Sultan consents, that on condition of the regular payment of the tribute above mentioned, Mehemet Ali and his descendants shall collect—in the name of the Sultan, and as the delegate of his Highness, within the provinces, the administration of which shall be confided to them-the taxes and imposts legally established. It is moreover understood, that in consideration of the receipt of the aforesaid taxes and imposts, Mehemet Ali and his descendants shall defray all the expenses of the civil and military administration of the said provinces.

6. The military and naval forces which may be maintained by the Pacha of Egypt and Acre, forming part of the forces of the Ottoman Empire, shall always be considered as maintained for the service of the State." (*)

*CHAPTER III.

[ *120]

STATES UNDER A FEDERAL UNION.

CII. We now arrive at the second branch of this part of our subject— namely, the consideration of several States under a Federal Union. The examples at present existing of this description of States are the following:

1. The Germanic Confederation (Der Deutsche Bund). (a)

(2) Hertslet's Treaties, vol. v. pp. 547–549.

Deutsches Staats und Bundesrecht von Zacharia, Erster Theil, kap. i. s. 21 JULY, 1854.-9

2. The Confederated Cantons of Switzerland.

3. The United Republics of North America.

4. The United Republics of Central and South America:-namely, first, The United Provinces of Guatemala, or the Republic of Central America; secondly, The United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, or the Argentine Republic.

CIII. States under a Federal Union may be classed under two principal heads-First. Those which have retained their Independent and Individual Sovereignty, especially as to the adjustment of their external relations with other Nations, and belong to a system of Confederated States only for purposes of domestic and internal policy, and of mutual assistance and defence (Staatenbunde). (b)

But the laws of this federal body have only effect and force in the separate members of the system through the agency and application of the particular laws and jurisdiction of each individual government; therefore, as far as Foreign Power is concerned, these Confederated States. must be considered as individually responsible for their conduct, and as *separate Independent States. In this class must be ranked the existing Germanic Confederations.

[*121]

Secondly. The Federal Union may be so adjusted that the management of the external relations of the respective members of the Union be absolutely vested in the Supreme Federal Power.

[*122]

*CHAPTER IV.

GERMAN CONFEDERATION.

CIV. The ancient Germanic Empire, (a) august and venerable for many reasons to the student of International Jurisprudence and Public Law, was virtually destroyed by Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine, and must be considered as formally extinguished by the Act(b) of Abdication of the Emperor Francis, in August, 1806. By this Act the Electors were absolved from their duty to him as head of the Empire, and his own German dominions were incorporated into the Austrian States, over which he henceforth ruled as Emperor of Austria.

CV. The Germanic Confederation is to be distinguished from those confederated States which have indeed an Independent National Govern

(Goottingen, 1841): "Von dem zusammengesetzten Staate, der union, und dem völkerrechtlichem Staatenvereine."

(6) Zachariä, ib. b. i. kap. i. s. 21. The other class is aptly designated Bundesstaat.

(a) Deutsches Staats und Bundesrecht Zachariä, band. i. kap. ii. "Die Zeit des Deutschen Reichs.-Von dem Gesandschaftsrechte des Deutschen Bundes.-Miruss, i. p. 523. Vattell, ii. p. 338, s. 59.

(b) See the Act Marten's Rec. des Traités, VIII. p. 498; Wheaton's History, p. 70; Hallam's Middle Ages, vol. ii. c. 5; Koch, Histoire des Traites, c. i. s. 1 (par Schoell). The Germanic Constitution, and still more the Medieval Councils of the Church, are the Institutions which have, in theory, made the nearest approach which perhaps the world has ever seen to an Universal International Tribunal.