indirectly, though of necessity, treated as belonging to the claimant by prescription; and such convention being concluded without any reservation on the part of the nation, would be very strong evidence of the abandonment of her right.

Again, if a nation suffer other nations in their mutual arrangements to deal with the right of possession in question as belonging to one of them, and makes no protest in favour of her claims, she must be held to have acquiesced in the transaction. An individual may indicate his acquiescence by his words or by his deeds. "Recusari hæreditas non tantum verbis, sed etiam re protest, et alio quovis indicio voluntatis" (d) is the doctrine of the Roman Law; and upon it Grotius(e) remarks, "Sic si is qui rei alicujus est dominus, sciens cum altero eam rem possidente tanquam cum domino contrahat, jus suum remisisse merito habebitur: quod cur non et inter reges locum habeat, et populos liberos nihil causæ est." And again: "Venit enim hoc non ex jure civili sed ex jure naturali, quo quisque suum potest abdicare, et ex jure naturali præsumptione, quâ voluisse quis creditur quod sufficienter significavit : quo sensu recte accipi potest quod Ulpianus dixit, juris gentium esse acceptilationem."(ƒ)

Heineccius, in his Commentary on Grotius, expresses concisely the the same doctrine "inter gentes loco signi est patientia scientia."(g) It is indeed true that, according to Grotius, silence cannot be construed as an assent, unless it be "scientis et liberè volentis;" but he [*309] adds that "temporis in utrumque magna vis est ;" and in fact these conditions are presumed after the lapse of time.(h)

CCLXXXV. The practice of nations confirms this theory: they have frequently entered protests() in favour of their alleged rights upon the conclusion of Treaties in which these rights were expressly, or by implication, negatived. It is hardly necessary to add, that a nation, who is herself a party to such a Treaty, without making any protest, has unquestionably abandoned her rights. The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle

(d) Dig. xxix. 2. s. 95.

(f) Ib. Dig. xlvi. 4. s. 8.

(e) L. ii. c. iv. s. 4.

(g) Prælect. 1. ii. c. iv. s. 4. See, too, Mably, Droit Public, t. ii. p. 21, 22.

(h) Grotius (De Jure Belli, p. 227.) says: "Sed ut ad derelictionem præsumendam valeat silentium duo requiruntur, ut silentium sit scientis, et ut sit libere volentis, nam non agere nescientis, caret effectu; et alia causa cum apparet, cessat conjectura voluntatis."

"Ut hæc igitur duo adfuisse censeantur, valent et aliæ conjecturæ: sed temporis in utrumque magna vis est. Nam primum fieri vix potest, ut multo tempore res ad aliquem pertinens non aliqua via ad ejus notitiam perveniat, cum multas ejus occasiones subministret tempus. Inter præsentes tamen minus temporis spatium ad hanc conjecturam sufficit, quam inter absentes, etiam sepositâ lege civili. Sic et incussus semel metus durare quidem nonnihil creditur, sed non perpetuo, cum tempus longum multas occasiones adversus metum sibi consulendi, per se, vel per alios suppeditet, etiam exeundo fines ejus qui metuitur, saltem ut protestatio de jure fiat, aut, quod potius est, ad judices aut arbitros provocetur."

แ

“ Κάτοχον καὶ βέβαιον τὴν κτῆσιν πεποιηκότος τοῦ χρόνου.”Dionys. Halicarn. c. ix. t. ii. p. 155.

" Χρόνος γὰρ εὐμαρὴς Θεός,

according to the remarkable expression of Sophocles ('Hλékтpа, 179.). (i) Mably, Droit Public, t. i. pp. 104, 342.; t. ii. pp. 43, 193.

De Rayneval, Instit. du Droit de la Nature et des Gens, 1. ii. c. ix. s. 2.

(1748) was the last in the eighteenth century at which these protests were made. Thus, the Pope has perpetually protested, from the Treaty of Westphalia to the Congress of Vienna, against all Treaties recognising or confirming the confiscation of Church property effected at or since the time of the Reformation.(k)

*In 1814(7) the King of Saxony published an admirable [*310] protest against the dismemberment of his kingdom. And at the Congress of Vienna (1815) the Pope and Gustavus IV., ex-king of Sweden, delivered protests.(m)

CCLXXXVI. This dereliction of property is, however, often not left, and where it is possible never should be left, to the inferences of legal presumption. The solemn renunciation of territory and of rights by a State is one of the most important subjects, both of Public and International Jurisprudence. Memorable instances of their importance are to be found in the Treaties of Utrecht. In these Treaties the renunciations of the Emperor of Germany, the King of France, and the King of Spain established the separation of the Crowns of France and Spain as a fundamental rule of European International Law, and severed Belgium, Milan, and Naples from the Spanish monarchy.

The States or State interested in the renunciation must take care that it be ratified by the Constitutional Authorities of the renouncing kingdom. We e may close this subject with the remark of Mably: "Tous les peuples sentent la necessité des renonciations pour établir entre eux la sûreté, l'ordre, et la paix; ne doit-il pas être absurde de douter de leur validite ?"(n)

CCLXXXVII. Another mode of extinguishing dominion is, as we have seen, by voluntary transfer of the possession; but it is important to observe, that if a part of a territory be alienated, it carries with it to the new owner all the obligations and debts by which it was previously bound; here, as in most cases, the principle of the Roman Law being applicable :- Id enim bonorum cujusque esse intelligitur quod æri alieno superest.(o) When property has been granted *under a [*311] condition which has not been fulfilled on the part of the grantee, then redit dominium ipso jure to the grantor. And in this case it appears consonant to justice that the property should be restored to the grantor with its intermediate fruits and revenues, and without the burdens or obligations imposed on it during its temporary ownership, there being, as Jurists say, a dominii resolutio ex tunc.(p)

(k) Koch, Hist. des Tr. t. i. p. 316. (ed. Brux. 1837).

Mably, t. i. p. 143; t. ii. pp. 50, 130-9, præsertim (for History of the Renunciation of France in the Treaties of Utrecht) p. 148.

Wheaton, Hist. p. 87.

(1) Garden, Tr. de Dipl. t. iii. p. 205, contains the Protest at length. See, too, p. 146-the Mémoire raisonné.

(m) Koch, t. iii. p. 500.

(n) Droit Public, t. ii. p. 140.

(0) D. de V. S. 1. t. xvi. 125; xlix. t. xiv. s. 11, D. de Jure Fisc. (p) "Amittimus etiam dominium, quod sub resolvente conditione acquisiveramus, si conditio impletur. Hoc autem duobas modis fieri potest. Aliquando enim ita resolvitur jus nostrum, ut res nunquam nostra fuisse videatur, tum onera ei à nobis imposita evanescunt, et res cum fructibus et omni causâ restituenda est. Hæc rescissio accidit, quoties sub casuali conditione res nobis alienata fuerat, veluti si ager sub lege commissoriâ emptus, ob pretium non solutum inemptus sit. (Exempla extant in fr. iii. s. iii. D. 18,2 (de in diem addictio.); fr. 3 D. 20, 6 (quibus mod.

CCLXXXVIII. The doctrine of Postliminium,(q) in the case of States, is borrowed from the Roman Law, and belongs to the time of Peace as well as War, though properly and chiefly to the latter, where it will be further discussed.

The jus postliminii, in the sense in which it is now about to be used, means the right of being reinstated in property (r) *and rights [*312] which have been accidentally lost or illegally taken away. They must, however, have been at one time actually, and not theoretically,(s) possessed, as was rightly determined in the case of Belgium, which has been already mentioned.(t)

CCLXXXIX. When property, or rights, have been so lost and taken away, it should seem to be the better opinion of jurists, that even a bonâ fide possessor and purchaser must restore them to the rightful owner(u) -and, moreover, without compensation for the expenses which he (the bonâ fide possessor) may have incurred in purchasing it. He is not even, according to many jurists, following the doctrines of the Civil Law, entitled to the superpa, the inventionis præmia,(x) except, indeed, in cases in which the rightful owner himself must have paid for the recovery of the goods of a friend from the possession of an enemy.(y) Salvage on recapture is founded on this principle, and is a part of the Maritime Law, not only of our own, but of all civilized nations. Property recovered from robbers by sea or land falls of course under the same principle.

CCXC. Upon the question, however, whether the bonâ fide possessor

pign. vel. hyp. solv.), c. iv. C. 4, 54 (de pactis inter emt. et venditor.) Redit dominium ipso jure.) Aliis in causis revocatio dominii in præteritum trahenda non est; quo casu res sine fructibus, sed cum oneribus ei à nobis impositis restitui debet. (Exempl. in fr. 3. in f. D. 20, 6. (tit. cit.), fr. 3. D. 18, 6 (de rescind. vend.), c. 2. C. 4, 54 (tit. cit.), Dominium ipso jure non redit, sed tenemur ad rem veteri domino tradendam.) Hodierni illam dominii resolutionem ex tunc: hanc vero ex nunc appellare consueverunt. Hæc maxime tum obtinet, cum res sub potestativâ conditione nobis abalienata erat."—Warnkönig, Instit. Jur. Rom. Privati, 1. ii. c. ii. tit. viii. s. 378.

(9) Grotius, 1. iii. c. ix., De Postliminio.

"Dictum est autem postliminium à limine et post; unde eum, qui ab hostibus captus, in fines nostros postea pervenit, postliminio reversum recte dicimus. Nam limina sicut in domibus finem quendam faciunt. Sic et imperii finem limen esse veteres voluerunt. Hinc et limes dictus est, quasi finis quidam et terminus; ab eo posliminium dictum, quia eodem limine revertebatur, quo amissus fuerat."-Institut. 1. i. tit. xii. Quibus modis jus patrice potestatis solvitur, s. 5.

Bynkershoek, Q. J. P. l. i. c. xvi., De Jure Postliminii variâ.

(r) Grotius, 1. ii. c. x., De obligatione quæ ex dominio oritur; or, according to Barbeyrac's most correct translation, "De l'obligation que le droit de propriété impose à autrui, par rapport au propriétaire.”

(s) Grotius, 1. iii. c. ix., De Postliminio.

(t) Wheaton's Hist. pp. 547-555.

(u) Grotius, 1. ii. c. x. i. 5., De obligatione quæ ex dominio oritur: “Nam ad dominii naturam nihil refert ex gentium an ex civili jure oriatur semper enim secum habet quæ sibi sunt naturalia, inter quæ est obligatio cujusvis possessoris ad rem domino restituendam. Et hoc est quod ait Martianus jure gentium condici posse res ab his qui non ex justâ causâ possident.'

(x) Grotius, 1. ii. c. x. note (14): "Quid ergo, si superpa (id est, inventionis præmia) quæ dicunt, petat? Nec hic videtur furtum facere, etsi non probè petat aliquid.". Dig. xlvii. t. ii. 44, 9, De Furtis.

(y) Heineccius indeed thinks this practice “ex regulâ honesti," but not "ex regulâ justi;" because no owner ought "res suas bis emere."-Heinec. in Grot. 1. ii. c. x. 9.

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is bound to restore,(z) not only the possession, but *the intermediate fruits and profits which he has derived from it, there is some difference of opinion. Grotius and Puffendorf(a) hold that he must restore so much of the fruits of the property as have increased his fortune, though not the value of that which has been consumed by him upon his actual necessities. They found this maxim upon a rule to be found in the Digest: "Jure naturæ æquum est neminem cum alterius detrimento et injuriâ fieri locupletiorem."(b) The rigid adoption of this rule has led them both into considerable perplexity, and into the necessity of allowing many exceptions from it, chiefly founded on the doctrine of obligations from implied contracts (ex quasi contractu.)(c) It is difficult not to agree with Barbeyrac, that the rule cited is not necessarily applicable to any cases of this description :(d) "Mais," (he says) "pour ne pas l'étendre trop loin, il faut considérer, si celui qui profite, aux dépens d'un autre, n'a pas un droit de faire ce profit. Car s'il en a un droit, alors on voit bien que c'est tant mieux pour lui, et tant pis pour l'autre."(e) The maxim cited from the Civil Law may indeed be opposed by another derived from the same source: "Bona fides tantundem possidenti præstat, quantum veritas, quoties lex," (that is, some particular law) impedimento non est,"(f) and that the true rule of International Law is, that the peaceable enjoyment of an honest possessor is [*314] to be considered as a kind of interregnum which has interrupted the power of the true proprietor, but insures to the putative proprietor the fruits of his management while he was in full authority.(g)

CCXCI. Günther seems to admit the position of Grotius, but asserts that the honest possessor may set off the costs of the improvements which he has effected, against the emoluments which he has received.(h) Heffters takes, in effect, the same view of the matter as Barbeyrac, but without referring to him. (i) Heffters founds his opinion upon the position, that the silence of the true proprietor, during the time the honest possessor was in authority, ought to secure to the latter his gains; and Barbeyrac acutely observes, what Thomasius, who followed in the wake of

(2) "Thou shalt not see thy brother's ox or his sheep go astray, and hide thyself from them; thou shalt in any case bring them again unto thy brother.

"And if thy brother be not nigh unto thee, or if thou know him not, then thou shalt bring it unto thine own house, and it shall be with thee until thy brother seek after it, and thou shalt restore it to him again."-Deuteronomy, c. xxii. v. 1, 2. (a) Grotius, 1. ii. c. x.

Puffendorff, 1. iv. c. 13.

(b) De divers. Reg. Juris. Leg. cevi. And so Cicero says: "Detrahere igitur aliquid alteri, et hominem hominis incommodo suum augere commodum, magis est contra naturam, quàm mors, quàm paupertas," &c.-De Offic. 1. iii. c. v.

(c) Grotius, ib., and Heineccii Prælect:- "Et quæ sunt alia hujus generis exempla. Innumera enim in jure universo, maxime in materiâ de quasi contractibus passim occurrunt."

It is the doctrine, however, of English Law.

(e) Barbeyrac on Grotius, t. i. l. ii. c. x. p. 391. (note 4.)

(ƒ) Dig. 1. 50. 17. De Div. Reg. Jur Ant. 136.

(g) Barbeyrac on Puffendorf De Jure Nat. et Gent. 1. iv. c. xiii. s. 3 Ibid. on Grotius, de Jure B. et P. 1. ii. c. x. s. 2.

(h) Günther, vol. ii. p. 214.

(i) Heffters, 73. n. 1.

Grotius and Puffendorf, is obliged in his commentary on Huber's work(k) (De Jure Civitatis) to admit, "que, quand il s'agit de voir si un possesseur de bonne foi s'est enrichi par la possession de la chose même, ou par la jouïssance des revenus qui en proviennent, c'est un examen sujet à des difficultés infinies, et dont on ne peut presque venir à bout."

CCXCII. From the practice of nations with respect to this matter in time of peace but little aid is to be borrowed for either argument. The 13th Article, however, of the Peace of Ryswick, in 1697, though it may be said more properly to refer to indemnification due from a wrong-doer to a lawful owner, may be mentioned here: "Et in quantum, per auctoritatem Domini Regis Christianissimi Dominus Rex Magne Britanniæ impeditus fuerit, quominus frueretur reditibus, juribus et commodis tam principatûs sui Aransionensis quam aliorum suorum Dominiorum, quæ post conclusum Tractatum *Neomagensem, usque ad declara

[*315] tionem præsentis belli sub dominatione prædicti Regis Christian

issimi fuerunt, prædictus Dominus Rex Christianissimus Regi Magnæ Britanniæ restituit et restitui efficiet realiter cum effectu et cum interesse debito, omnes istos reditus, jura et commoda secundum declarationes et verificationes coram dictis Commissariis faciendas."(1)

CCXCIII. Property may be taken, without consent, from an individual by an act of the law, and a valid title conveyed to another owner; so by conquest jure victoria, followed by treaty, property may be taken from one State and conveyed to another: but this will be discussed at greater length in another part of this Work.

CCXCIV. Property may also become legally extinct by suffering a change of character, by being placed among things extra commercium, as will be explained in the next chapter.

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*CHAPTER XVI I.

SLAVES AND THE SLAVE TRADE.

CCXCV. There is a kind of property which it is equally unlawful for States as for Individuals to possess-property in men.

A being endowed with will, intellect, passion, and conscience, cannot be acquired and alienated, bought and sold by his fellow beings, like an inanimate or an unreflecting and irresponsible thing. (a)

CCXCVI. The Christian world has slowly but irrevocably arrived at the attainment of this great truth; and its sound has at last gone out into all lands, and its voice into the ends of the world.(b)

(k) Barbeyrac on Grotius, 1. ii. c. x. p. 391. (notis.)

(7) Schmauss, vol. ii. p. 1113.

a) "Si vinxero hominem liberum ita ut enum possideam, an omnia quæ is possidebat, ego possideam per illum? Respondit si vinxeris hominem liberum eum te possidere non puto; quod quum ita se habeat multo minus per illum res ejus à te possidebuntur; neque enim rerum natura recipit, ut per enum aliquid possidere possim quem civiliter in meâ potestate non habeo.”—Dig. xli. 2. 23. 2.

(b) “J'ai dit que d'après les principes de l'ancienne constitution Romaine la pro