820 CLARKE CLARKSVILLE CLARKE, JOHN, an American physician; born in Suffolk, England, Oct. 8, 1609; died in Newport, Rhode Island, April 20, 1676. He emigrated to Boston in 1637, and, desiring more religious freedom than the colony afforded, he settled with others in Rhode Island, then called Aquidneck, in 1638. From 1651 to 1664 he was in England, acting as agent for the colony, and secured from Charles II the charter which insured civil and religious liberty for Rhode Island. He is supposed to have drawn up the code of laws which governed the colony. For several terms he was elected to the general assembly, and it is said that he was the first to show, "in an actual government, that the best safeguard of personal right is Christian law." He has been called the "Father of Rhode Island,' and also the "Father of American Baptists." CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER, comedian; born in Baltimore, Maryland, 1835; studied for the bar, but abandoned it and went upon the stage in his native city and began his regular theatrical career in 1852 in Philadelphia, and was speedily recognized as the best exponent of low comedy then on the boards. He starred the country for years, owned and managed theaters in Philadelphia and in Boston, and from 1867 to 1870, played in London at the St. James and Princess theaters, and in other English cities, with great success. His Doctor Ollapod; Toodles; Doctor Pangloss; and Major Wellington de Boots, are among his leading creations. CLARKE, MCDONALD, the "Mad Poet," born in Bath, Maine, June 18, 1798; died in New York City, March 5, 1842. He was an eccentric character, about whose life little was known until he came to New York City in 1819. He was the author of the oft-quoted lines, "Night drew her sable curtain down And pinned it with a star.' Among his publications were the following books: A Review of the Eve of Eternity, and Other Poems (1820); The Elixir of Moonshine, by the Mad Poet (1822); The Belles of Broadway (1836); and A Cross and a Coronet (1841). CLARKE, MARY VICTORIA COWDEN. See CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN, in these Supplements. CLARKE, REBECCA SOPHIA, authoress; born in Norridgewock, Maine, Feb. 22, 1833. She has written stories for young people; among her best are Little Prudy Stories (1864); Dotty Dimple Stories (1868); Flaxie Frizzle Stories (1876-84); and Quinnebasset Girls (1877). Her pen-name is Sophie May." 46 CLARKE, SAMUEL FESSENDEN, an American naturalist; born at Geneva, Illinois, June 4, 1851; was graduated at the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale in 1878; was assistant to the United States Fish Commission in 1874; assistant in the Johns Hopkins biological laboratory, 1879-81; professor of natural science in Williams College (1882); and has published a work, The Development of a Double-Headed Vertebrate (1880). CLARK'S FORK OF THE COLUMBIA OR FLAT HEAD RIVER, a stream which drains a part of Montana, Idaho and Washington. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, in western Montana, flows southward through Flathead Lake, and for thirty miles farther, then turns northwest through Lake Pend d'Oreille, and finally reaches the Columbia River. Gold is found near its source. CLARKSBURG, a town and the capital of Harrison County, northern central West Virginia; situated at the place where the Elk and West Fork rivers unite with the Monongahela, on the Baltimore and Ohio and the West Virginia and Pittsburg railroads. It has flour, woolen and saw mills, electric lights, gas and water works, two academies, fine public buildings, and in the vicinity of the town coke and coal are found. Population 1890, 3,008. In CLARKSON, THADDEUS STEVENS, an American soldier, was born at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in 1840. He enlisted April 16, 1861, within two hours after the appearance of President Lincoln's call for seventy-five thousand men for three months, in Company A, First Illinois Artillery. He went to Cairo, served under General Grant there; re-enlisted for the war, July 16, 1861; was promoted Dec. 1, 1861, to adjutant of the Thirteenth Illinois Cavalry; served with that regiment, on the staff of General John W. Davidson, and participated in the battles with that commander on the march to Helena and Little Rock, Arkansas. He was assigned to the command of the regiment during the Arkansas campaign. August, 1863, he assisted in raising the Third Arkansas Cavalry, composed of Union white men of that state; was promoted to the rank of major, and commanded the regiment until nearly the close of the war, participating in nearly all of the battles in Arkansas, under General Steele. He came to Nebraska, settling in Omaha, with his brother, the late Bishop Clarkson, in March, 1866, and lived in the state for thirty years. was postmaster of Omaha under President Harrison's administration. Major Clarkson was on the executive committee of the National Council of Administration, Grand Army of the Republic, for three consecutive years; was elected department commander of Nebraska by acclamation at the encampment in February, 1890. He was also commander of the Loyal Legion of Nebraska. He was elected commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic at the annual encampment at Minneapolis on Sept. 4, 1896. He CLARK'S STANDARD CELL. See ELECTRICITY, 107, in these Supplements. CLARKSVILLE, a city and the capital of Montgomery County, northern Tennessee, 50 miles N. W. of Nashville, on the Cumberland River, and N.W. on the Louisville and Nashville railroad. Tobacco is manufactured in large quantities. mines are near the town. It is the seat of the Southwestern Presbyterian University. Population 1890, 7,924. CLARKSVILLE, the oldest town of northern Texas and the capital of Red River County, in the northeastern part of the state, on the Texas CLARK UNIVERSITY-CLASSIFICATION and Pacific railroad. It has schools and churches, and is the center of a fertile region. Population 1890, 1,588. CLARK UNIVERSITY, a non-sectarian institution of learning, founded by Jonas C. Clark, in 1887, at Worcester, Massachusetts. The purpose of the university is to give the best postgraduate instruction in a limited number of subjects, mostly scientific, no undergraduates being admitted. The courses offered are in mathematics, physics, chemistry, physiology, morphology, anatomy, neurology, psychology, anthropology and pedagogy, each course being under the supervision of a chief instructor. CLARK UNIVERSITY. Ex aminations are few, and as much liberty is given to the students as possible, the purpose of the institution being to give opportunity for original and individual research under the direction of the instructors. The faculty offers 30 scholarships, valued from $200 to $600 each, in addition to a number of docentships, open to the more advanced students, the holders of which are expected to do some teaching, while giving most of their time to research. There are at present three buildings, one of which, the central building, has 90 rooms; another, the chemistry building, 68 rooms. There are 16,000 volumes in the library. G. Stanley Hall is the president. CLARY (Salvia sclarea), a plant of the same genus with sage, a native of the south of Europe. Its flowers are used for making a fermented wine, esteemed for its flavor. CLASSICS OR CLASSICAL LEARNING. The term classici was originally applied to those citizens of Rome that belonged to the first and most influential of the six classes into which Servius Tullius divided the population. As early as the second century after Christ it was applied figuratively to writers of the highest rank, and this mode of designation has since been generally adopted both in literature and art. As the great productions of writers and artists of antiquity have continued to be looked upon by moderns as models of perfection, the word classics has come to designate, in a narrower sense, the best writers of Greece and Rome. See ITALY, Vol. XIII, p. 506. næus. 821 *CLASSIFICATION (of plants), usually styled Taxonomy. The current classifications of plants have been the natural development of all previous schemes of classification. The earliest observers were impressed with the necessity of reducing plants to some orderly arrangement, and this phase of botany became so impressed upon the science that until very recent times it was little more than a science of classification. In this form it appealed to the collector spirit, and hence became a very popular pursuit. The earliest classifications were necessarily based upon the most superficial observations, and numerous "artificial systems" became current, culminating in the famous one devised by LinThese systems were "artificial," in that. they selected some one character as a basis, which would usually result in bringing an aggregation of plants together that held no real relationshipto each other, just as the words in a dictionary are arranged in alphabetical sequence, resulting in bringing into juxtaposition words of most. diverse origin. The dogma of the permanency of species lent itself kindly to these artificial arrangements; and if the determination of the name of a plant were the end of classification, artificial schemes would never fall into disuse, as they are far easier of manipulation than any natural scheme. Many of the earlier botanists were: fully conscious of the fact that a natural scheme must ultimately replace the artificial ones, but they were entirely cut off from any attempt at its construction by lack of knowledge. It was only after the idea of evolution had become a dominant one, and morphological investigation had yielded a large amount of data, that any attempt could be made to arrange plants according to their genetic relationships. Botanists had been writing of "families" of plants, but not at all implying "blood relationship by the name. Natural systems of classification have been rapidly multiplying ever since the first attempt, and rightly so, for continuous morphological investigation is ever adding new facts, which demand a shifting of the old lines. Any scheme of classification is simply an expression of current knowledge concerning relationship, and as knowledgeincreases, classifications must change. It is reasonably safe to assume, however, that most of the large lines have been permanently drawn, and that subsequent shiftings will be concerned with details. It would not be profitable to give a complete account of systems of classification, but a few prominent ones will serve to illustrate the subject. Probably the first system proposed that is worthy of scientific attention is that of John Ray, published in 1703. His grouping is as follows: 1. Herbs. a. Flowerless plants. b. Flowering plants. (1) Dicotyledons. (2) Monocotyledons. 2. Trees. a. Monocotyledons. *Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company. In this scheme, the primary division into herbs and trees is a relic of the older classifications, and is essentially artificial. The grouping, also, of the "flowerless plants" under herbs was simply a shelving of that great assemblage of lower forms about which very little was known. The notable feature of the scheme, however, is its recognition for the first time of the fundamental distinction between Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The system of Linnæus, dating from 1733, was even more confessedly artificial, but at became so popular that it continued in use for more than a century. It was based upon the number, relative position and union of the stamens with regard to each other and to the pistil. The names of his 24 groups are self-explanatory to any one familiar with botanical terminology, and are as follows: (1) Monandria, (2) Diandria, (3) Triandria, (4) Tetrandria, (5) Pentandria, (6) Hexandria, (7) Heptandria, (8) Octandria, (9) Euneandria, (10) Decandria, (11) Dodecandria, (12) Icosandria, (13) Polyandria, (14) Didynamia, (15) Tetradynamia, (16) Monadelphia, (17) Diadelphia, (18) Polyadelphia, (19) Syngenesia, (20) Gynandria, (21) Monoecia, (22) Diccia, (23) Polygamia, (24) Cryptogamia. Such a scheme enabled the student of botany to determine rapidly the name of a plant, but it taught him nothing of its relationships. The classification proposed by Antoine de Jussieu, bearing the date 1789, is probably the first that deserves to rank as a natural scheme. It is as follows: 1. Acotyledons (Cryptogams in general). 2. Monocotyledons. a. Flowers hypogynous. b. Flowers perigynous. c. Flowers epigynous. 3. Dicotyledons. a. Apetalæ. Flowers hypogynous. b. Monopetala. Flowers perigynous. c. Polypetalæ. Flowers epigynous. Flowers hypogynous. Flowers perigynous. Flowers epigynous. d. Diclines irregulares. De Jussieu is certainly to be commended for his recognition of the fundamental character in were disposed of in a lump, with some negative statement. Although presenting no scheme of classification, the name of Robert Brown cannot be omitted, as in 1827 he published his demonstration of the nature of Gymnosperms, and showed that they could not be longer associated with Dicotyledons, though with wonderful persistence this obsolete association continues in manuals still current. Endlicher, in 1836-40, proposed the following scheme, which contains several new points: 1. Thallophytes. a. Protophytes (algæ and lichens). 2. Cormophytes. a. Acrobrya (mosses, ferns, etc.). c. Acramphibrya (gymnosperms and dicotyledons). Although somewhat fantastic in his group distinctions of Cormophytes, the scheme is notable for its attempt to incorporate the Cryptogams. It is in Brongniart's classification of 1843 that the familiar grouping into Cryptogams and Phanerogams appears, as follows: 1. Cryptogams. a. Amphigenæ (algæ and fungi). 2. Phanerogams. a. Monocotyledons. b. Dicotyledons. (1) Angiosperms. (2) Gymnosperms English-speaking botanists than any other, as it This classification is probably more familiar to has ever since been current in their manuals. With the exception of the disposition of the Gymnosperms, it well indicates the larger groupings as accepted to-day. Alexander Braun, in 1864, proposed the following arrangement, in which more of the terminology of to-day appears, and which properly places the Gymnosperms: 1. Bryophytes (algæ, fungi, mosses). 2. Cormophytes (ferns, equisetums, lycopods). 3. Anthophytes. a. Gymnosperms. b. Angiosperms. (1) Monocotyledons. (2) Dicotyledons. It was due to the researches of W. Hofmeister (1849-51) that the real relation between "Cryptogams" and "Phanerogams" was estabany natural system of the hypogynous, perigy-lished, and systems of classification began to be nous, and epigynous conditions. arranged upon a more scientific basis. Among The classification proposed by De Candolle in these more modern systems but three need to be 1819 is as follows: 1. Vascular plants. a. Exogens. (1) Diplochlamydeæ. (b) Calycifloræ. (c) Corollifloræ. (2) Monochlamydeæ. b. Endogens. (1) Phanerogams. (2) Cryptogams. 2. Cellular plants. It will be noted that up to this time no attempt was made to characterize the Cryptogams. They mentioned, the last of which represents the most recent complete statement. The classification proposed by Sachs, and made familiar to American students by Bessey, is as follows: CLASSIS-CLAUSIUS The special feature of the scheme is the pri- | 4. mary grouping of Thallophytes, which is based upon reproductive characters, instead of the presence or absence of chlorophyll. The Eichler system of 1883 follows the same general lines, except that the Thallophytes are primarily divided into Algæ and Fungi. The system of Engler, outlined in 1892, is just now appearing in detailed statement in the great work, Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. As in all of the more modern arrangements, its peculiar features are to be found in the grouping of the Thallophytes, concerning whose proper arrangement there is the greatest diversity of opinion. Even the primary divisions of plants are somewhat modified as follows: 1. Myxothallophyta (the slime-molds). The changes soon to be made in grouping will doubtless concern the breaking up and establishing of primary divisions among what are now known collectively as Thallophytes, and the association of those forms developing an archegonium (Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, and possibly Gymnosperms) as a primary division bearing the name Archegoniates. The fact that Gymnosperms develop both an archegonium and a seed will continue to make them a troublesome factor in grouping. In conclusion, the scheme of classification in largest use at present, and referable to no botanist in particular, is as follows: 1. Thallophytes: Vegetative organs (such as root, stem and leaf) and tissues mostly undifferentiated; alternation of generations wanting or but feebly developed; reproduction non-sexual or sexual, in the latter case showing no differentiation of sex, or a distinct differentiation into the sex-organs known as antheridium and oögonium. a. Algæ: Plants containing chlorophyll. a. Hepaticæ (liver-worts): Plants more or less b. Musci (mosses): Plants with distinct axis, bear- a. Filicineæ (ferns.) b. Equisetineæ (horse-tails). 823 Spermatophytes: Alternation of generations indistinct through great reduction of the gametophyte and consequent development of the structure known as the "seed." a. Gymnosperms (cycads, conifers and gnetums). b. Angiosperms. (1) Monocotyledons. (2) Dicotyledons. (a) Archichlamydeæ. JOHN M. COULTER. CLASSIS, a court in some of the reformed churches of Holland and America, composed of the ministers and ruling elders, and ranking between the consistory and the synod, and exercising functions analogous to those of presbyteries in the Presbyterian Church. Appeals are made from consistories to classis, and from the latter to synods. This court ordains, confirms and deposes ministers, and can dissolve ministerial connections; it sends two ministers and two delegates to the synod, and three ministers and three elders to the general synod. CLASTIC ROCKS are those composed of fragmental materials. The term includes all rocks of a secondary or derivative origin, as conglomerate, sandstone, shale, etc., which have been formed out of the remains of previously existing rocks. Besides the large class of sand and gravel rocks, it also embraces many rocks of organic origin, such as certain limestones, composed of the debris of shells, corals, etc.; coals made up of the remains of plants; some ironstones, consisting in whole or in part of organic débris. Fragmental volcanic rocks, such as tuff and agglomerate, come also into the same division. CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON, Prussian general; born at Burg, June 1, 1780; died of cholera, at Breslau, Nov. 16, 1831. He served with distinction in several campaigns in the Prussian and in the Russian service; in 1815 became chief of the Prussian army corps, and was ultimately director of the army school and inspector of artillery. His writings prepared the way for a complete revolution in the theory of war. Of his works the best known is his great book on war, Vom Krieg (3 vols., 4th ed. 1880), and his Life of Scharnhorst. CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMANUEL, a German physicist; born at Köslin, Prussia, Jan. 2, 1822; was educated at the Berlin University; became professor at the Polytechnic Institution of Zurich in 1855, at the University of Würzburg in 1867, and at the University of Bonn in 1869. He developed a fundamental theorem in thermodynamics which made him noted. III, pp. 38, 39.) (See ATOM, Vol. This was done contemporaneously with and independently of Macquorn Rankine in Britain, both these investigators proceeding upon the same lines and with identical results, alike in the development of this theorem and in regard to the discovery of the partial condensation of steam at usual temperatures and pressure by thermodynamic action. His best-known books are Die Mechanische Wärmetheorie (1876-91) and Die Potentialfunktion und das Potential. He died at Bonn, Aug. 24, 1888. 824 CLAUSSON-CLAY and this influenced him to become an abolitionist CLAUSSON, PEDER, a Norwegian author; | in 1832, he heard William Lloyd Garrison speak, born April 1, 1545; died Oct. 15, 1614. See DENMARK, Vol. VII, p. 90; and NORWAY, Vol. XVII, p. 589. CLAUSTHAL. See KLAUSTHAL, Vol. XIV, p. 108. and to free his own slaves. CLAVARIA, a genus of hymenomycetous fungi, of the family Clavariacea, in which the spore-elected, in 1835, to the bearing tissue is produced over all parts of the surface. The species are numerous, some of them simple and club-shaped, some branched, the branches usually being thick and round. C. bon trytis, a species common in oak and beech woods, especially in Germany, is gathered when young and used as food. Other species, notably C. flava, coralloides, aurea and formosa, are used in the same way. CLAVICLE, an important part of the pectoral girdle of vertebrates, perhaps most familiarly known in the collar-bone of man and in the "merry thought " of birds. It is well developed in those mammals in which the fore-leg or arm is used very strongly and freely, but is poorly developed or absent in many cases, as in carnivores and ungulates. In most flying-birds it is strong, and often fused to the breast-bone. It is a paired bone superadded from the skin as an auxiliary to scapula and coracoid. Its position is ventral and anterior to the coracoid, and it is often associated with an interclavicle. See ANATOмY, Vol. I, p. 826. CLAVICORNES, a great family of coleopterous insects, of the section Pentamera. Most of the beetles of this family feed on animal substance, and many of them find their appropriate food in substances undergoing decay. See COLEOPTERA, Vol. VI, p. 131. CLAVIJERO, FRANCISCO XAVIER, a Mexican historian; born at Vera Cruz in 1731; entered the order of the Jesuits in 1748; became a teacher of rhetoric and philosophy and studied Aztec history and language. On the suppression of the Jesuits in Spanish America in 1767, Clavijero retired to Italy, where he died at Bologna in 1787. He wrote in Italian a History of Mexico, an impartial and valuable work, of which an English translation, by C. Cullen, was published in 1788. His Storia della California was published posthumously. CLAXTON, KATE. See STEVENSON, MRS. CHARLES A., in the Supplements. CLAY, a term applied to those kinds of earth or soil which, when moist, have a notable degree of tenacity and plasticity. The clays appear to owe their origin to the decomposition of various rocks, and to consist chiefly of aluminic silicate along with other ingredients, which vary in character with the nature of the parent-rock from the degradation of which they are derived. Thus common clay is a mixture of kaolin or China clay (which is a hydrated clay) and the fine powder of some felspathic mineral which is anhydrous and not decomposed. See MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 424. CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS, politician, born in Madison County, Kentucky, Oct. 19, 1810. While studying in Yale College, from which he graduated CASSIUS M. CLAY. legislature; re-elected in After the war he supported the revolutionary movement in Cuba in 1870; he gave political support to Horace Greeley in 1872, to Samuel J. Tilden in 1876, and although a Democrat, advocated the election of Mr. Blaine in 1884. For killing a negro, Perry White, in 1877, Mr. Clay was tried, but acquitted, the jury bringing in a verdict of "justifiable homicide," as the man, a discharged servant, had threatened his life. In 1894, at the age of 84, he married a 17-year-old ward, of poor family, against the opposition of his sons, and on their attempted abduction of the girl, armed. his servants, put his house in a state of siege, and threatened death to any one who should interfere. CLAY, CLEMENT CLAIBORNE, an American politician; born at Huntsville, Alabama; son of United States Senator Clement Comer Clay. The son studied law, being called to the bar in 1840; became a judge in 1844, and United States Senator from 1854 to 1861. In the Senate he was an extreme advocate of states' rights principles. In 1861 he entered the Confederate senate and was a Confederate secret agent in Canada in 1864. He was alleged to have been implicated in the assassination of President Lincoln, but was exonerated on trial; returned to the practice of his profession, and died near Huntsville, Jan. 3, 1882. CLAY, HENRY, JR., an American soldier, and son of the statesman of the same name; born at Ashland, Kentucky, April 10, 1811, was gradu |