household goods, $9,000,000; fine arts, $8,000,000; and clothing, $22,000,000.

Agriculture. From 1835 to 1855 improved land increased from 10,000,000 to 13,700,000 acres. There were 361,000 owners of land. The farm produce was enormous. There were raised over 9,000,000 bushels of wheat, 27,000,000 of oats, 20,000,000 of corn, 5,000,000 of potatoes, 4,000,000 of rye, 14,000,000 of apples, and 3,000,000 of buckwheat, besides many other grains and fruits. Over 3,000,000 tons of hay were moved. Garden produce amounted to over $2,500,000. In the spring 5,000,000 pounds of maple sugar were made and 85,000 gallons of syrup. During the summer over 2,500,000 pounds of honey and 138,000 pounds of beeswax were secured. About 90,000,000 pounds of butter and 40,000,000 pounds of cheese were made.

General Improvement in Farming. These figures show that the farmers and their wives and families were not idle. Yet they only show a part of the real produce of the farms. Improved machinery enabled the farmer to do four times as much as before. The land was cleared of stones and stumps. The reaping and mowing machine replaced the sickle and cradle for harvesting grains and hay. Plows and harrows were improved. Many other inventions made farming easier and more profitable. But the greatest benefit was the good markets brought by the canal and railroad. The number of horses, cattle, swine, and sheep had increased comparatively little in the twenty years. Over 9,000,000 pounds of wool were grown, however, in 1855.

CHAPTER XLI.-EDUCATION AND LITERATURE

Public Schools. During this period there was more interest in education than ever before. The legislature decided" to arouse the public attention to the important subject of education, and, by adopting a system of common schools, in the expense of which the state would largely participate, to bring instruction within the reach of the humblest citizen." Education by the state had become a clear duty and not a begrudged act of charity. But the extension of the free public school up through the high school to the college was yet to be worked out. In 1840 573,000 children were being educated in 11,000 districts.

They have done a great deal

The

Educational Progress.-District school libraries were suggested as early as 1830, established in 1835, and given $55,000 in 1838. Many of these books are still scattered over the state. of good and enlightened many a mind. The cities were imitating the Public School Society of New York. great educator, Horace Mann, said in 1845, "The great state of New York is carrying forward the work of public education more rapidly than any other state in the Union or any other country in the world." This was a glowing tribute to the great statesmen and educators who developed New York's educational system. County superintendents were elected in 1841, but for political reasons this method of selecting them was soon abolished and was not revived again until 1856.

Trained Teachers.-As the schools grew a demand for trained teachers arose. Some academies attempted this

work (1835), but the first school for the purpose was the Albany Normal School (1851). The first teachers' institute was held at Ithaca (1843), and soon it became a permanent institution. The secret "Society of Associated Teachers" in New York City (1794) led to county and town organizations (1830). The first state convention of teachers was held at Utica (1830), and annually afterward. The State Teachers' Association was formed at Syracuse (1845). In 1854 the first superintendent of public instruction, Victor M. Rice, was appointed by the legislature for three years.

A

No Free-school System.-Still the state had no freeschool system. Some districts made their schools free. The schools received a large sum from the state, $1,600,000 in 1850, but not enough to pay all expenses. Hence parents paid "rate-bills " in proportion to the number of days their children went to school. In 1840 $475,000 was raised in this way. This system lasted till 1867. cry arose for free schools, and the rate-bills " were denounced as unjust to the poor. The legislature finally submitted the question of their abolition to the people (1849), when 250,000 persons favored making the "state educate the children of the state" and 92,000 opposed it. The matter was compromised by letting the rate-bills stand for 16 years, but at the same time relieving the parents by a state tax of $800,000.

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Newspapers and Magazines.—One of the evidences of progress in general intelligence is seen in the increase of magazines and newspapers, which numbered 428 in 1850 and had a circulation of 1,625,000. There were 51 dailies, 308 weeklies, and 36 monthlies. Five years later the number had increased to 571-73 dailies, 411

weeklies, and 113 monthlies. The total circulation in 1860 was 6,000,000. The New York Tribune, established by Horace Greeley as a penny paper (1841), first used the Atlantic cable to get foreign news. The New York Times, famous for helping to destroy the Tweed Ring, was established (1851) and edited by Henry J. Raymond. Notwithstanding the growth in schools and the increase of newspapers, there were 99,000 illiterates in the state, 68,000, however, being foreign-born (1850).

Literature during the Revolution. Little of real literary merit was produced during the Revolution. Dr. Myles Cooper, Rev. Samuel Seabury, and Charles Inglis wrote keen, logical pamphlets on the loyalist side. Alexander Hamilton and John Jay wrote most of the essays in the Federalist in support of the constitution of 1787. Philip Freneau, the first American poet of note, wrote much political prose and verse on the Antifederalist side. Thomas Paine, author of "Common Sense," closed his life in New York. William Dunlap, artist, playwright, and scholar, wrote a History of New York and some other works. Charles Brockden Brown, the earliest romance-writer, published his first novel in New York. Lindley Murray produced an English Grammar and an English Reader.

Writers after the Revolution. In 1806 Washington Irving published the first of his many works. He was the first American author whose books obtained recognition abroad. He helped to give New York a place of honor in the world of literature. His works, from "Salmagundi" and "Knickerbocker's History of New York" to the "Life of Washington," stand among

the highest of their class in literature. James Kirke Paulding, a friend and co-laborer of Irving, wrote about scenes and subjects wholly American. James Fenimore Cooper, the first American novelist of distinction, gained a world-wide reputation through his 34 sea-tales and "Leather Stocking" stories. Joseph Rodman Drake, remembered for his poems, "The Culprit Fay" and "The American Flag," and Fritz-Greene Halleck, author of "Marco Bozzaris," were friends of Cooper. Other writers remembered for single pieces were Samuel Woodworth, author of "Old Oaken Bucket"; George Perkins Morris, who wrote "Woodman, Spare that Tree "; Clement C. Moore, who produced "A Visit from St. Nicholas "; Charles Fenno Hoffman, known for the song " Sparkling and Bright" and the ballad "Monterey "; Robert H. Messinger, who penned "Give Me the Old "; William Allen Butler, recollected for "Nothing to Wear "; and John Howard Payne of "Home, Sweet Home" fame.

"The

Later Writers.-Another resident of New York of recognized ability was Nathaniel Parker Willis, who wrote a volume of poems and thirteen volumes of prose. Edgar Allan Poe removed to New York in 1838. Raven," published in 1845, made him famous. His poems are very beautiful, and his stories are weird and fantastic. As time passes his place becomes more assured among the best American poets. Bayard Taylor wrote many books descriptive of his foreign travels, four novels, and a quantity of poetry. William Cullen Bryant, author of "Thanatopsis," was editor of the New York Evening Post and a leader of literary society. One of the most popular story-writers forty years ago