manufacturing counties were, in the order named, New York, Kings, Rensselaer, Erie, Albany, Monroe, Onondaga, Oneida, Westchester, Oswego, Dutchess, Orange, and Ulster. From 1850 to 1860 New York led the states in making agricultural implements, engines, iron, books, sewing-machines, clothing, lumber, flour, malt liquors, leather, furniture, salt, gas, soap, and candles. She was second in making boots, shoes, woolen goods, and musical instruments. In 1870 she ranked first in manufacturing copper, war materials, furniture, paper, tobacco, farming tools, cheese, musical instruments, salt, maple sugar, and syrup. She stood second in producing brass, foods, iron, leather, liquors, lumber, books, clothing, carpets, flour, and woolen goods, and third in lead, nails, tacks, and silk. Averaging all products, New York led the country in manufacturing.

Agriculture.-Farming was never a more desirable nor a more profitable occupation than during the period More than one-tenth of the people owned farm-lands, and 375,000 were engaged in this work (1870). There were 242,000 farms, and only 258 over 1,000 acres. Of the 25,660,000 acres in farms 15,900,000 acres were improved. The farms were valued at $1,221,500,000, the stock on them at $146,500,000, and the produce at $121,188,000 (1875). The crops had increased onethird. Of hay 5,500,000 tons were raised, of barley 5,000,000 bushels, of buckwheat 4,000,000, of corn 20,000,000, of rye 3,000,000, of wheat 10,000,000, of potatoes 37,000,000, and of apples 18,000,000. Of grapes 17,000,000 pounds were grown. Over 9,000,000 pounds of maple sugar, 219,000,000 pounds of butter, and 106,000,000 pounds of cheese were made. Of milk 41,

500,000 gallons were sold, and of wine 311,000. Large quantities of hops, poultry, and tobacco were raised. Swine, horses, and cattle increased in number 25 per cent, but sheep decreased. The markets were good and prices were high. Farmers became rich, built fine houses and barns, tilled their land, bred fancy kinds of stock, and sent their children to academies and colleges to be educated. Improved machinery made the work easier and gave more time for culture and travel. The country began to supply the cities with brain and muscle as well as food. From 1850 to 1860 New York led in farming, but since then other states have surpassed her.

Commerce, both domestic and foreign, kept pace with the general prosperity. More than 235,000 persons were engaged in transportation. The domestic exports from the port of New York amounted in 1856 to $99,000,000, and the foreign exports were $6,000,000. Twenty years later they were $295,000,000 and $14,000,000. The imports during the same time increased from $196,000,000 to $312,000,000. Work was plenty and wages were good. Probably at no time in the history of the state were all classes so busy and so well satisfied.

CHAPTER XLVIII.-SCHOOLS, CHURCHES, AND SOCIETY

Free Public Schools.-This period saw a tremendous advance in education. The common schools were made free, and every boy and girl could be educated at the cost of the state (1867). The common schools were linked with the colleges by the formation of high schools in all the cities and large villages and by numerous academies. These secondary schools numbered 300 (1880). The colleges were increased and liberalized. Thus the great educational dream of De Witt Clinton was at last realized after many a hard and almost hopeless contest. For the masses there were 11,700 free common schools and 1,300 other institutions of learning (1870). The attendance had increased from 727,000 (1850) to 1,059,000 (1875), and 135,000 went to private schools. Still half a million of children of school age did not go to school.

Educational Progress.-Normal schools grew up gradually as the demand for trained teachers arose. They resulted from the teachers' institutes. The Albany Normal was the first (1844). Oswego soon followed, and before long six more were established. These were supported by the state and were free. The three colleges had become twenty-seven (1880). The girls were not neglected. Every city had one or more seminaries for them, and three colleges were exclusively for their use. At first education was held to be a family duty, but by this time the conviction prevailed that it was the state's duty to educate all boys and girls. This led to

the compulsory-education law, which went into effect January 1, 1875.

Newspapers and Libraries.-The growing popular intelligence was marked by the rapid progress in papers and books. The 428 newspapers of 1850 changed in number to 835 in 1870. The 51 dailies had increased to 87; the 36 monthlies to 163; and the 308 weeklies to 518. The total circulation advanced from 1,625,000 to 472,000,000. These papers represented the whole range of human interests. Another evidence of enlarged intellectual activity was the growth in libraries. In 1870 there were 21,000 libraries of all kinds in the state with 6,300,000 books. There were 10,000 school libraries, 3,500 Sunday-school libraries, 144 circulating libraries, 130 city and village libraries, 26 law libraries, 2 state libraries, and numerous private libraries.

Post-offices. That great educator, the post-office, was perfected during this epoch. Up to 1845 there was little change in the rates. It cost six cents to send a letter of one sheet 30 miles, ten cents up to 80 miles, and twenty-five cents for 400 miles. If the letter had two, three, or four sheets the price was doubled, trebled, or quadrupled. Drop letters and newspapers in the state cost one cent. In 1835 New York paid $401,000 in postage. In 1845 a great change came. Letters of half an ounce were carried 300 miles for five cents, and beyond that the cost was double. Newspapers were carried free 30 miles, 100 miles for one cent, and beyond that for half a cent more. In 1851 the rate for a letter was reduced to three cents for 3,000 miles, and two-cent letter postage was introduced in 1883. Postage stamps were first used in 1847. The registration of

letters began in 1854, and free delivery and money orders originated in 1863.

The Religious and Moral Life of the people was not neglected. The Civil War was a great moral educator. Man's freedom became a sacred thing. Loyalty was holy. The antislavery movement was looked upon as a sacred warfare. Along with it and overclouded by it was the temperance crusade. Charity, mercy, and honor took a new hold on men. Churches increased from 4,134 (1850) to 6,320 (1875) with 1,147,000 members. The 43 sects paid $5,308,000 to ministers in salaries and owned buildings valued at $101,106,000. The Methodists had the largest number of houses of worship, then came Baptists, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics. The Roman Catholics had the largest number of members, and were followed by the Methodists, Presbyterians, and Baptists. Mrs. Bethune's small Sunday-school (1816) soon expanded into 7,000, attended by 1,200,000 scholars and teachers (1888).

Prosperity and Intelligence.-The Civil War developed a love of country not known since the Revolution. Confidence in the national government was strengthened. Plenty of money, high bounties, and high prices for labor and products enabled the poor to pay off debts and become well-to-do. Shrewd merchants and bankers made large fortunes. There was an increased knowledge of local and national geography. Political science was better understood, and individual responsibility was realized as never before.

The Social Condition of the people was greatly improved. The railroads, canals, and telegraph lines united the people as one big family. Newspapers guided public