This whole line is in process of construction, and will, within a very short time, be completed. New Orleans will connect by a northerly route, making the distance a little more than to Mobile. This Illinois Central Road is the great link which connects the northern routes with the southern, and must carry the through business of all the roads. It is, no doubt, the case, but that the Central Michigan Road, connecting also with Boston, may be the preferable one for transportation.

The influence of the Central Railroad, in addition to that of the great canal, the Springfield and Alton Railroad, the Galena and Chicago Railroad, and the other improvements in Illinois under the management of private companies, upon the welfare of the State, is hardly to be calculated. Each and all of these works not only cause the occupation of lands, thus bringing them under the operation of the tax law, increasing its proceeds applicable to the discharge of the debts, but, by opening markets, raises the value of all the products, and therefore lightens the tax to all the inhabitants. That which was an onerous burden upon 40,000 agricultural families, occupying land secluded from markets, became a light matter to 200,000 families, whose fertile lands are open to markets in which they compete successfully with the producers of less favored regions, and the day of discredit has passed. More particularly, that the new constitution, passed in 1847 by a vote of 59,887 for, and 15,859 against-majority in favor 44,028, or nearly two-thirds-that the State shall never contract debts to exceed in the aggregate $50,000, unless the law authorizing the debt shall provide for or tax to discharge it, and shall be submitted to the people before going into operation.

Art. II. SUGAR: AND THE SUGAR TRADE.

SUGAR is the sweet constituent of vegetable and animal products. It may be distinguished into two principal species. The first, which occurs in the sugar cane, the beet-root, and the maple, crystallizes in oblique four-sided prisms, terminated by two-sided summits; it has a sweetening power which may be represented by 100; and, in circumpolarization it bends the luminous rays to the right. The second occurs ready formed in ripe grapes and other fruits; it is also produced by treating starch with disastase or sulphuric acid. This species forms cauliflower concretions, but not true crystals; it has a sweetening power which may be represented by 60, and in circumpolarization it bends the rays to the left. Besides these two principal kinds of sugar, some others are distinguished by chemists; as the sugar of milk, of manna, of certain mushrooms, of liquorice-root, and that obtained from saw-dust and glue by the action of sulphuric acid; but they have no importance in a manufacturing point of view.

Sugar, extracted either from the cane, the beet, or the maple, is identical in its properties and composition, when refined to the same pitch of purity; only that of the beet seems to surpass the other two in cohesive force, since larger and firmer crystals of it are obtained from a clarified solution of equal density. It contains 5.3 per cent of combined water, which can be separated only by uniting it with oxyde of lead, into what has been called a saccharate; made by mixing sirup with finely ground litharge, and evaporating the mixture to dryness upon a steam-bath. When sugar is exposed to a heat of 400° F., it melts into a brown pasty mass, but still retains its water of composition. Sugar thus fused is no longer capable of crystallization, and is called caramel by the French. It is used for coloring liqueurs. Indeed, sugar is so susceptible of change by heat, that if a colorless solution of it be exposed for some time to the temperature of boiling water, it becomes brown and partially uncrystallizable. Acids exercise such an injurious influence upon sugar, that after remaining in contact with it for a little while, though they be rendered thoroughly neutral, a great part of the sugar will refuse to crystallize. Thus, if three parts of oxalic or tartaric acid be added to sugar in solution, no crystals of sugar can be obtained by evaporation, even though the acids be neutralized by chalk or carbonate of lime. By toiling cane sugar with dilute sulphuric acid, it is changed into starch sugar. Manufacturers of sugar should be, therefore, particularly watchful against every acidulous taint or impregnation. Nitric acid converts sugar into oxalic and malic acids. Alkaline matter is likewise most detrimental to the grain of sugar; as is always evinced by the large quantity of molasses formed, when an excess of temper lime has been used in clarifying the juice of the cane or the beet. When one piece of lump sugar is rubbed against another in the dark, a phosphorous light is emitted.

Sugar is soluble in all proportions in water; but it takes four parts of spirits of wine, of spec. grav. 0.830, and eighty of absolute alcohol, to dissolve it, both being at a boiling temperature. As the alcohol cools, it deposits the sugar in small crystals. Caramelized and uncrystallizable sugar dissolves readily in alcohol. Pure sugar is unchangeable in the air, even when dissolved in a good deal of water, if the solution be kept covered and in the dark; but with a very small addition of gluten, the solution soons begin to ferment, whereby the sugar is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid, and ultimately into acetic acid.

Sugar forms chemical compounds with the salifiable bases. It dissolves readily in caustic potash ley, whereby it loses its sweet taste, and affords on evaporation a mass which is insoluble in alcohol. When the ley is neutralized by sulphuric acid, the sugar recovers its sweet taste, and may be separated from the sulphate of potash by alcohol, but it will no longer crystallize.

That sirup possesses the property of dissolving the alkaline earths, lime, magnesia, strontites, barytes, was demonstrated long ago by Mr. Ramsay of Glasgow, by experiments published in Nicholson's Journal, volume xviii. page 9, for September, 1807. He found that sirup is capable of dissolving half as much lime as it contains of sugar; and as much strontites as sugar. Magnesia dissolved in much smaller quantity, and barytes, seemed to decompose the sugar entirely. These results have been since confirmed by Professor Daniell. Mr. Ramsay characterized sugar treated with lime as weak, from its sweetening power being impaired; from its solution he obtained, after some time, a deposite of calcarious carbonate. M. Pelouze has

lately shown, that the carbonic acid in this case is derived from the atmosphere, and is not formed at the expense of the elements of the sugar, as Mr. Daniell had asserted.

Sugar forms with oxyde of lead two combinations; the one soluble, and the other insoluble. Oxyde of lead digested in sirup dissolves to a certain amount, forms a yellowish liquor, which possesses an alkaline reaction, and leaves after evaporation an uncrystallizable, viscid, deliquescent mass. If sirup be boiled with oxyde of lead in excess, if the solution be filtered boiling hot, and if the vial be corked in which it is received, white bulky flocks will fall to its bottom in the course of 24 hours. This compound is best dried in vacuo. It is in both cases light, tasteless, and insoluble in cold and boiling water: it fires like German tinder, (AMADOU,) when touched at one point with an ignited body, and burns away, leaving small globules of lead. It dissolves in acids, and is also a neutral acetate of lead, which forms with the oxyde a subsalt, and sets the sugar free. Carbonic acid gas passed through water, in which the above saccharate is diffused, decomposes it with precipitation of carbonate of lead. It consists of 58.26 parts of oxyde of lead, and 41.74 sugar, in 100 parts. From the powerful action exercised upon sugar by acids and oxyde of lead, we may see the fallacy and danger of using these chemical reagents in sugar refining. Sugar possesses the remarkable property of dissolving the oxyde, as well as the subacetate of copper, (verdigris,) and of counteracting their poisonous operation. Orfila found that a dose of verdigris, which would kill a dog in an hour or two, might be swallowed with impunity, provided it was mixed with a considerable quantity of sugar. When a solution of sugar is boiled with the acetate of copper, it causes an abundant precipitate of protoxyde of copper; when boiled with the nitrates of mercury and silver, or the chloride of gold, it reduces the respective bases o the metallic state.

The following TABLE shows the quantities of Sugar contained in Sirups of the numerical specific gravities.* It was the result of experiments carefully

If the decimal part of the number denoting the specific gravity of sirup be multiplied by 26, the product will denote very nearly the quantity of sugar per gallon in pounds weight, at the given specific gravity.t

Sugar has been analysed by several chemists; the following TABLE exhibits some of their results :

The author, in minutes of evidence of Molasses Committee of the House of Commons, 1831,

p. 142.

This rule was annexed to an extensive table, representing the quantities of sugar per gallon corresponding to the specific gravities of the sirup, constructed by the author for the Excise, in subserviency to the Beet-root Bill, 43

VOL. XXVI.-NO. VI.

Of the sugar-cane, and the extraction of sugar from it. Humboldt, after the most elaborate historical and botanical researches in the new world, has arrived at the conclusion that before America was discovered by the Spaniards, the inhabitants of that continent and the adjacent islands were entirely unacquainted with the sugar canes, with any of our corn plants, and with rice. The progressive diffusion of the cane has been thus traced out by the partisans of its oriental origin. From the interior of Asia it was transplanted first into Cyprus, and thence into Sicily, or possibly by the Saracens directly into the latter island, in which a large quantity of sugar was manufactured in the year 1148. Lafitau relates the donation made by William the Second, king of Sicily, to the convent of St Benoit, of a mill for crushing sugar canes, along with all its privileges, workmen, and dependencies which remarkable gift bears the date of 1166. According to this author, the sugar cane must have been imported into Europe at the period of the Crusades. The monk Albertus Aquensis, in the description which he has given of the processes employed at Acre and Tripoli to extract sugar, says, that in the Holy Land, the Christian soldiers being short of provisions, had recourse to sugar canes, which they chewed for subsistence. Towards the year 1420, Don Henry, regent of Portugal, caused the sugar-cane to be imported into Madeira from Sicily. This plant succeeded perfectly in Madeira and the Canaries; and until the discovery of America these islands supplied Europe with the greater portion of the sugar which it Consumed.

The cane is said by some to have passed from the Canaries into the Brazils; but by others, from the coast of Angola in Africa, where the Portuguese had a sugar colony. It was transported in 1506, from the Brazils and the Canaries, into Hispaniola or Hayti, where several crushing-mills were constructed in a short time. It would appear, moreover, from the statement of Peter Martyr, in the third book of his first Decade, written during the second expedition of Christopher Columbus, which happened between 1493 and 1495, that even at this date the cultivation of the sugar cane was widely spread in St. Domingo. It may therefore be supposed to have been introduced here by Columbus himself, at his first voyage, along with other productions of Spain and the Canaries, and that its cultivation had come into considerable activity at the period of his second expedition. Towards the middle of the 17th century, the sugar cane was imported into Barbadoes from Brazil, then into the other English West Indian possessions, into the Spanish Islands, on the coast of America, into Mexico, Peru, Chili, and, last of all, into the French, Dutch, and Danish colonies.

The sugar cane, Arundo sacchifera, is a plant of the graminiferous family, which varies in hight from 8 to 10, or even to 20 feet. Its diameter is about an inch and a half; its stem is dense, brittle, and of a green hue, which verges to yellow at the approach of maturity. It is divided by prominent annular joints of a whitish-yellow color, the plane of which is perpendicular to the axis of the stem. These joints are placed about 3 inches apart; and send forth leaves, which fall off with the ripening of the plant. The leaves are 3 or 4 feet long, flat, straight, pointed, from 1 to 2 inches in breadth, of a sea-green tint, striated in their length, alternate, embracing the stem by their base. They are marked along their edges with almost imperceptible teeth. In the 11th or 12th month of their growth the canes push forth at their top a sprout 7 or 8 feet in hight, nearly half an inch in diameter, smooth, and without joints, to which the name arrow

is given. This is terminated by an ample panicle, about 2 feet long, divided into several knotty ramifications, composed of very numerous flowers, of a white color, apetalous. and furnished with 3 stamens, the anthers of which are a little oblong. The roots of the sugar cane are jointed and nearly cylindrical; in diameter they are about one twelfth of an inch; in their utmost length, 1 foot, presenting over their surface a few short radicles.

The stem of the cane in its ripe state is heavy, very smooth, brittle, of a yellowish-violet, or whitish color, according to the variety. It is filled with a fibrous, spongy, dirty-white pith, which contains very abundant sweet juice. This juice is elaborated separately in each internodary portion, the functions of which are in this respect independent of the portions above and below. The cane may be propagated by seeds or buds with equal facility; but it is usually done by cuttings or joints of proper lengths, from 15 to 20 inches, in proportion to the nearness of the joints, which are generally taken from the tops of the canes, just below the leaves.

There are several varieties of the sugar-cane plant. The first, and longest known, is the creole, or common sugar cane, which was originally introduced at Madeira. It grows freely in every region within the tropics, on a moist soil, even at an elevation of 3000 feet above the level of the sea. In Mexico, among the mountains of Caudina-Mascar, it is cultivated to a height of more than 5000 feet. The quantity and quality of sugar which it yields, is proportional to the heat of the place where it grows, provided it be not too moist and marshy.

The second variety of this plant is the Otaheitan cane. It was introduced into the West Indies about the end of the 18th century. This variety, stronger, taller, with longer spaces between the joints, quicker in its growth, and much more productive in sugar, succeeds perfectly well in lands which seem too much impoverished to grow the ordinary cane. It sends forth shoots at temperatures which chill the growth and development of the creole plant. Its maturation does not take more than a year, and is accomplished sometimes in nine months. From the strength of its stem, and the woodiness of its fibers it better resists the storms. It displays a better inflorescence, weighs a third more, affords a sixth more juice, and a fourth more sugar, than the common variety. Its main advantage, however, is to yield four crops in the same time that the creole cane yields only three. Its juice contains less feculency and mucilage, whence its sugar is more easily crystallized, and of a fairer color.

Besides these two varieties, another kind is described by Humboldt and Bonpland, under the name of the violet sugar cane, for its haum and leaves are of this color. It was transported from Batavia in 1782. It flowers a month sooner than the rest, that is, in August, but it yields less solid sugar, and more liquid, both of which have a violet tint.

In saying that the cane may be propagated by seeds as well as buds, we must remark that in all the colonies of America, the plant flowers, indeed, but it then sends forth a shoot, (arrow,) that is, its stem elongates, and the seed-vessel proves abortive. For this reason, the bud joints must there be used for its propagation. It grows to seed, however, in India. This circumstance occurs with some other plants, which, when propagated by their roots, cease to yield fertile seeds; such as the banana, the breadfruit, the lily, and the tulip.

In the proper season for planting, the ground is marked out by a line into rows three or four feet asunder, in which rows the canes are planted