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delusion. We also find him positively, and in appropriate terms, asserting that he himself worked miracles, strictly and properly so called, in support of the mission which he executed; the history, meanwhile, recording various passages of his ministry which come up to the extent of this assertion. The question is, whether falsehood was ever attested by evidence like this. Falsehoods, we know, have found their way into reports, into tradition, into books; but is an example to be met with of a man voluntarily undertaking a life of want and pain, of incessant fatigue, of continual peril; submitting to the loss of his home and country, to stripes and stoning, to tedious imprisonment, and the constant expectation of a violent death, for the sake of carrying about a story of what was false, and what, if false, he must have known to be so?

(From the Hora Paulina.)

Paley published in all a score of works, including various collections of sermons. Collective editions appeared in 1805-8, 1819, 1825, 1837, 1838, and 1851. There are Lives by Meadley (1809), his son (1825), and the other editors of the works.

John Brown of Haddington (1722-87), the founder of a house famous in Scottish theology, science, and literature for four generations, did himself by his theological works give an impress to the Scottish mind and evoke intellectual through religious interests. Born at Carpow near Abernethy in Perthshire, a poor weaver's child, he lost father and mother in boyhood and had but scanty schooling. Nevertheless, as a Tayside herd-boy he contrived to study not merely Latin to some purpose, but even Greek and a little Hebrew. For a time he was a pedlar; during the '45 served in the Fife Militia; taught in several schools; and having studied theology in connection with the Associate Burgher Synod, was in 1751 called to the congregation of Haddington. He was a man of much learning; open-handed on a stipend of £50 a year; a kindly humourist, though harrowing self-doubts tormented him all his life through ; and a powerful preacher. In 1768 he accepted the unsalaried Burgher chair of Divinity. Of his twenty-seven works, the most widely known are the Dictionary of the Bible (1768) and the Self-interpreting Bible (2 vols. 1778), both of which took rank with the Pilgrim's Progress and Boston's Fourfold State amongst the most treasured books of the Scottish people. Dr Brown's sons and grandsons were respected, learned, and eloquent divines; one grandson was a poet, chemist, and original thinker of exceptional accomplishments; a great-grandson was Professor of Chemistry in Edinburgh; and another great-grandson was the beloved Dr John Brown of Edinburgh, author of Rab and his Friends. The Memoirs and Select Remains of Dr Brown of Haddington were edited in 1856.

Beilby Porteus (1731-1808), Bishop first of Chester (1776) and then of London (1787), was another apologist whose Summary of Christian Evidences was long an educational force in England. Born at York of Virginian parentage, he studied at Christ's College, Cambridge. He took an active part in philanthropic and missionary

enterprises, and published, besides charges and sermons, a Life of Secker, and other works sufficient to fill six volumes.

Samuel Horsley (1733-1806), born in London and educated at Westminster and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, succeeded his father as rector of Newington in Surrey. A young F.R.S., he published comments on recent Arctic observations, helped to issue Newton's complete works, and conducted a grand controversy with Priestley, who had reckoned the divinity of Christ amongst his Corruptions of Christianity. Through this he attained successively to the sees of St Davids, Rochester, and St Asaph.

Richard Watson (1737-1816), a Westmorland man who studied at Trinity and became professor at Cambridge successively of Chemistry and Divinity, took more interest in farming and planting on his estate at Windermere than in his spiritual cures in Norfolk and Leicester. He was notoriously unspiritual in temper and a Liberal in politics and theology, but made himself famous by his Apologies in reply to Gibbon (1776) and Tom Paine (1796), and became Bishop of Llandaff in 1782.

William Wilberforce (1759–1833) was born at Hull, the son of a wealthy merchant, and educated at St John's College, Cambridge. Returned to Parliament for Hull and then for Yorkshire, he was a close friend of Pitt, though he remained independent of party. During a tour on the Continent with Dean Milner, he became seriously impressed about religious truth and duty; and in 1787 he founded an association for the reformation of manners. In 1788, supported by Clarkson and the Quakers, he entered on his nineteen years' struggle for the abolition of the slave-trade, crowned with victory in 1807. He next sought to secure the abolition of the slave-trade abroad and the total abolition of slavery itself, and was long a central figure in the 'Clapham sect' of Evangelicals. He wrote a Practical View of Christianity (1797), which was regarded as an epoch-making book. His Life was written by his sons (one of them the famous Bishop of Winchester; 1838), and his Private Papers were edited by Mrs A. M. Wilberforce (1898).

Herbert Marsh (1757-1839), son of the vicar of Faversham in Kent, after a course at St John's, Cambridge, was second wrangler and second Smith's prizeman. He continued his studies at Leipzig, and as translator of his master Michaelis's Introduction to the New Testament ranks as the introducer to England of modern German Biblical criticism. He served England well by writing and publishing in German (1799) a defence of English policy in the French war which so conciliated German and Continental good-will that Napoleon proscribed the author, then in Germany, so that he had to lie concealed in Leipzig for months. Appointed professor at Cambridge, he increased

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of his mind, and addressed, in defence of his doctrine, a long letter to the queen, which at her request was answered by Cardinal Pole. At Rome, on the expiration of the eighty days, the royal proctors demanded judgment and Paul, in a private consistory, pronounced the usual sentence. The intelligence of this proceeding awakened the terrors of the archbishop. He had not the fortitude to look death in the face. To save his life he feigned himself a convert to the established creed; openly condemned his past delinquency; and stifling the remorse of his conscience, in seven successive instruments abjured the faith which he had taught, and approved of that which he had opposed. He first presented his submission to the council; and as that submission was expressed in ambiguous language, replaced it by another in more ample form. When the bishops of London and Ely arrived to perform the ceremony of his degradation, he appealed from the judgment of the pope to a general council: but before the prelates left Oxford, he sent them two other papers; by the first of which he submitted to all the statutes of the realm, respecting the supremacy and other subjects; promised to live in quietness and obedience to the royal authority; and submitted his book on the sacrament to the judg ment of the church and the next general council: in the second he professed to believe on all points, and particularly respecting the sacrament, as the catholic church then did believe, and always had believed from the beginning. To Ridley and Latimer life had been offered on condition that they should recant; but when the question was put whether the same favour might be granted to Cranmer, it was decided by the council in the negative. His political offences, it was said, might be overlooked; but he had been the cause of the schism in the reign of Henry, and the author of the change of religion in the reign of Edward; and such offences required that he should suffer for ensample's sake.' The writ was directed to the mayor or bailiffs of Oxford: the day of his execution was fixed yet he cherished a hope of pardon; and in a fifth recantation, as full and explicit as the most zealous of his adversaries could wish, declared that he was not actuated by fear or favour, but that he abjured the erroneous doctrines which he had formerly maintained, for the discharge of his own conscience and the instruction of others. This paper was accompanied with a letter to Cardinal Pole, in which he begged a respite during a few days, that he might have leisure to give to the world a more convincing proof of his repentance, and might do away, before his death, the scandal given by his past conduct. His prayer was cheerfully granted by the queen; and Cranmer in a sixth confession acknowledged that he had been a greater persecutor of the church than Paul, and wished that like Paul he might be able to make amends. He could not rebuild what he had destroyed; but as the penitent thief on the cross, by the testimony of his lips, obtained mercy, so he (Cranmer) trusted that by this offering of his lips, he should move the clemency of the Almighty. He was unworthy of favour; and worthy not only of temporal, but of eternal punishment. He had offended against King Henry and Queen Catharine he was the cause and author of the divorce, and, in consequence, also of the evils which resulted from it. He had blasphemed against the sacrament, had sinned against heaven, and had deprived men of the benefits to be derived from the eucharist. In

conclusion he conjured the pope to forgive his offences against the apostolic see, the king and queen to pardon his transgressions against them, the whole realm, the universal church, to take pity of his wretched soul, and God to look on him with mercy at the hour of his death. He had undoubtedly flattered himself that this humble tone, these expressions of remorse, these cries for mercy, would move the heart of the queen. She, indeed, little suspecting the dissimulation which had dictated them, rejoiced at the conversion of the sinner; but she had also persuaded herself, or been persuaded by others, that public justice would not allow her to save him from the punishment to which he had been condemned.

At length the fatal morning arrived: at an early hour, Garcina, a Spanish friar, who had frequently visited the prisoner since his condemnation, came, not to announce a pardon, but to comfort and prepare him for the last trial. Entertaining no suspicion of his sincerity, Garcina submitted to his consideration a paper, which he advised him to read at the stake, as a public testimony of his repentance. It consisted of five parts: a request that the spectators would pray with him; a form of prayer for himself; an exhortation to others to lead a virtuous life; a declaration of the queen's right to the crown; and a confession of faith, with a retractation of the doctrine in his book on the eucharist. Cranmer, having dissembled so long, resolved to carry on the deception. He transcribed and signed the paper; and giving one copy to the Spaniard, retained the other for his own use. But when the friar was gone, he appears to have made a second copy, in which, entirely omitting the fourth article, the assertion of the queen's right, he substituted in lieu of the confession contained in the fifth a disavowal of the six retractations which he had already made. Of his motives we can judge only from his conduct. Probably he now considered himself doubly armed. If a pardon were announced, he might take the benefit of it, and read the original paper; if not, by reading the copy, he would disappoint the expectations of his adversaries, and repair the scandal which he had given to his brethren. At the appointed hour the procession set forward; and, on account of the rain, halted at the church of St Mary, where the sermon was preached by Dr Cole. Cranmer stood on a platform opposite the pulpit, appearing, as a spectator writes, 'the very image of sorrow.' His face was bathed in tears; his eyes were sometimes raised to heaven, sometimes fixed through shame on the earth. At the conclusion of the sermon he began to read his paper, and was heard with profound silence, till he came to the fifth article. But when he recalled all his former recantations, rejected the papal authority, and confirmed the doctrine contained in his book, he was interrupted by the murmurs and agitation of the audience. The lord Williams called to him to 'remember himself, and play the Christian.' 'I do,' replied Cranmer; it is now too late to dissemble. I must now speak the truth.' As soon as order could be restored, he was conducted to the stake, declaring that he had never changed his belief; that his recantations had been wrung from him by the hope of life; and that, 'as his hand had offended by writing contrary to his heart, it should be the first to receive its punishment.' When the fire was kindled, to the surprise of the spectators he thrust his hand into the flame, exclaiming, 'This hath offended.' His sufferings were short: the flames rapidly ascended above his

head; and he expired in a few moments. The catholics consoled their disappointment by invectives against his insincerity and falsehood; the protestants defended his memory by maintaining that his constancy at the stake had atoned for his apostacy in the prison.

Historians are divided with respect to the part which Pole acted during these horrors. Most are willing to acquit him entirely; a few, judging from the influence which he was supposed to possess, have allotted to him a considerable share of the blame. In a confidential letter to the cardinal of Augsburgh he has unfolded to us his own sentiment without reserve. He will not, he says, deny that there may be men so addicted to the most pernicious errors themselves, and so apt to seduce others, that they may justly be put to death: for the same purpose as we amputate a limb to preserve the whole body. But this is an extreme case; and, even when it happens, every gentler remedy should be applied before such punishment is inflicted. In general lenity is to be preferred to severity; and the bishops should remember that they are fathers as well as judges, and ought to shew the tenderness of parents, even when they are compelled to punish. This has always been his opinion; it was that of the colleagues who presided with him at the Council of Trent, and also of the prelates who composed that assembly. His conduct in England was conformable to these professions. On the deprivation of Cranmer he was appointed archbishop; and his consecration took place on the day after the death of his predecessor. From that moment the persecution ceased in the diocese of Canterbury. Pole found sufficient exercise for his zeal in reforming the clergy, repairing the churches, and re-establishing the ancient discipline. His severity was exercised against the dead rather than the living; and his delegates, when they visited the universities in his name, ordered the bones of Bucer and Fagius, two foreign divines, who had taught the new doctrines at Cambridge, to be taken up and burnt. But his moderation displeased the more zealous: they called in question his orthodoxy; and in the last year of his life (perhaps to refute the calumny) he issued a commission for the prosecution of heretics within his diocese. Five persons were condemned: four months afterwards they suffered, but at a time when the cardinal lay on his death-bed, and was probably ignorant of their fate.

It had at first been hoped that a few of these barbarous exhibitions would silence the voices of the preachers and check the diffusion of their doctrines. In general they produced conformity to the established worship; but they also encouraged hypocrisy and perjury.

Dr Lingard wrote besides his History a number of minor works, controversial, historical, and theological. See the Memoir by Canon Tierney prefixed to vol. x. of the sixth edition of his magnum opus, which had the honour of being translated into French, German, and Italian.

James Bruce (1730-94), 'the Abyssinian,' was born at Kinnaird House in Stirlingshire, and from Harrow passed in the winter of 1747 to Edinburgh University, with the intention of studying law. Instead, coming to London, he married in 1754 the orphan daughter of a wine-merchant, and became a partner in the business. His wife died within the year, and after travelling in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, in 1763 he became British consul at Algiers; and in 1768 he set out from Cairo

on his famous journey to Abyssinia by the Nile, Assouan, the Red Sea, and Massowah. In 1770 he was at Gondar, had many stirring adventures, and held for a time a Government appointment. On 14th November he reached the source of the Abai, or head-stream of the Blue Nile, which he considered the main stream of the Nile; in the December of the following year he quitted Gondar, and returned, through great hardships, by way of Sennaar, Assouan, Alexandria, and Marseilles. In France he visited Buffon; in 1774 he was back in England. It was not until sixteen years after his return that Bruce published his Travels. Parts had been made public, and were much ridiculed; Johnson even doubted whether Bruce had ever been in Abyssinia. The work appeared in 1790,

From the Portrait in the National Portrait Gallery (Painter
unknown).

in five large quarto volumes, with another volume of plates. The strangeness of the author's adventures at the court of Gondar, the somewhat inflated style of his narrative, and his undisguised vanity led to a disbelief of his statements, and numerous lampoons and satires, both in prose and verse, were directed against him. 'Peter Pindar' made the most of the live-cow beafsteaks and other improbabilities, and some of the chapters of Baron Munchausen's Travels were levelled as much at Bruce as at the old Hanoverian Freiherr von Münchhausen. The really honourable and admirable points of Bruce's character-his energy and daring, his various knowledge and acquirements, and his disinterested zeal in undertaking such a journey at his own expense-were overlooked in this petty war of the wits. Bruce, who was a huge, self-assertive, dictatorial man, six feet four inches high, felt their attacks keenly; but he was

a proud-spirited man, and did not deign to reply to pasquinades impeaching his veracity. He survived to endure these annoyances only four years. The foot which had trod without serious misadventure the deserts of Nubia tripped on his own staircase at Kinnaird, and, falling heavily, he died of the injuries sustained. Bruce's style is usually plain-sailing, sometimes vigorous, vivid, and humorous, but occasionally prolix; he was apt to select the most prominent features and colour them highly. No doubt vanity and the desire to be always presenting a distinguished figure made him at times adorn the reality; and his somewhat careless method of composition twelve years after the events led him frequently into confusion with his facts and dates. His reports of long conversations were inevitably to some extent literary invention; and he overstated the claims of the Blue Nile to be the head-stream, as against the real or White Nile. But the travels of late travellers in Abyssinia, Henry Salt (1780– 1820), Nathaniel Pearce (1780-1820), and others completely substantiated the most incredible parts of the older traveller's tales, including the story about the Abyssinians eating raw meat cut out of a living cow, which was most persistently denied and flouted by easy-chair critics.

His First View of the Supposed Source of the Nile. Half-undressed as I was, by the loss of my sash, and throwing off my shoes, I ran down the hill towards the hillock of green sod, which was about two hundred yards distant; the whole side of the hill was thick grown with flowers, the large bulbous roots of which appearing above the surface of the ground, and their skins coming off on my treading upon them, occasioned me two very severe falls before I reached the brink of the marsh. I after this came to the altar of green turf, which was apparently the work of art, and I stood in rapture above the principal fountain, which rises in the middle of it. It is easier to guess than to describe the situation of my mind at that moment-standing in that spot which had baffled the genius, industry, and inquiry of both ancients and moderns for the course of near three thousand years. Kings had attempted this discovery at the head of armies, and each expedition was distinguished from the last only by the difference of numbers which had perished, and agreed alone in the disappointment which had uniformly, and without exception, followed them all. Fame, riches, and honour had been held out for a series of ages to every individual of those myriads these princes commanded, without having produced one man capable of gratifying the curiosity of his sovereign, or wiping off this stain upon the enterprise and abilities of mankind, or adding this desideratum for the encouragement of geography. Though a mere private Briton, I triumphed here, in my own mind, over kings and their armies! and every comparison was leading nearer and nearer to presumption, when the place itself where I stood, the object of my vainglory, suggested what depressed my short-lived triumph. I was but a few minutes arrived at the sources of the Nile, through numberless dangers and sufferings, the least of which would

have overwhelmed me but for the continual goodness and protection of Providence: I was, however, but then half through my journey, and all those dangers through which I had already passed awaited me on my return; I found a despondency gaining ground fast, and blasting the crown of laurels which I had too rashly woven for myself.

Abyssinian Religion.

The Abyssinians, on their conversion to Christianity, received the doctrines of the Greek Church, their first bishop, Frumentius, being ordained about 333 by St Athanasius, then sitting in the chair of St Mark. Heresies in course of time crept into the Abyssinian Church. The Jesuits accuse them not only of holding the Eutychian heresy regarding the nature of Christ, but also of denying the 'one baptism for the remission of sins.' They assert that, once every year, it is the practice to baptize all the adults. I myself once witnessed the ceremony to which the Jesuits refer. It took place on

the banks of a small river between the town of Adowa and the church. The ceremony consisted in a sprinkling of water first of all upon the persons of quality present, in the order of their rank. After being sprinkled, they each tasted the water that was contained in a silver chalice, and received a benediction from the priest; after which they kissed the three crosses which had been dipped in the river, to consecrate the pool whence the water was brought. Immediately after the pool had been consecrated, and the cup filled from the clean part of it, two or three hundred boys, calling themselves deacons, plunged in, with only a white cloth round their middle. A crowd of people went down to the edge of the pool, and received a sprinkling from these young deacons. After the better class of people had received the sprinkling, the whole thing was turned into a riot; and the governor, monks, and crosses having departed, the brook was left in the possession of the boys and blackguards of the town. I should remark that, shortly after the governor had been sprinkled, two horses and two mules, belonging to Raz Michael and Ozoro Esther, came and were washed in the pool. Afterwards the soldiers went in and bathed their horses and guns; those who had wounds bathed them also. Heaps of platters and pots that had been used by Mahometans or Jews were brought thither likewise to be purified, and thus the whole ended.

I have no hesitation in asserting that this whole matter is grossly misrepresented by the Jesuits, and that no baptism, or anything like baptism, is meant by the ceremony. A man is no more baptized by keeping the anniversary of our Saviour's baptism (the ceremony took place on Epiphany) than he is crucified by keeping his

crucifixion.

The Abyssinians receive the holy sacrament in both kinds. They use unleavened bread, and the grape bruised with the husk as it grows, so that it is little more fluid than marmalade. Large pieces of bread are given to the communicants in proportion to their quality. After receiving the sacrament of the eucharist in both kinds, a pitcher of water is brought, of which the communicant drinks a large draught. He then retires from the steps of the inner division on which the administering priest stands, and, turning his face to the wall of the church, privately says some prayer, with seeming decency and attention.

The Abyssinians, like the ancient Egyptians, their