course be preferable; below the line, it is employed only where reforestation is not possible and therefore permanent constructions are required.

Wood structures consist of rows of pile-work, for which, of course, the most durable wood obtainable in the region is used. Split wood is better than round, since it holds the snow better. The piles are usually made 4 to 5 feet long and have a diameter of 5 to 6 inches. Preserving processes, charring, etc., are unnecessary in the altitudes where this work is to stand. The posts are pointed at one end and driven (with a wooden wedge, so as not to split them), if possible, 2 feet vertically into the ground, and are secured with stones. They should not be more than 3 feet above ground.

An interval of two feet between the piles is sufficient. It is not necessary to connect them by wicker-work, as the snow does not slide through the piles; but where the ground is thin, or very dry, or very steep, or otherwise lacking in hold, such wicker-work made of branches, may be used to connect and thus to strengthen the piles. The two end-piles must be especially secured. The length of the rows of piles and their distance from each other depend upon the configuration and the angles of inclination of the ground.

The choice of the place where the row of piles is to be put is of importance. The work is begun at the top or starting-place of the avalanche and progresses downwards. The piles must be set in the horizontal line, so that the pressure of the snow will be evenly distributed over the whole line. They are also to be placed where a change of fall (angle of inclination) from a less steep to a steeper incline occurs. If no natural terraces are found, such may be made by cutting into the slope above the piles, making a terrace of two feet in the side of the mountain. The ground thus removed is placed on the lower side of the piles and covered with turf.

Where piles cannot be driven, "snow-bridges" may be constructed. Where narrow rills or runs are to be protected, a tree is thrown across and secured at its end against other trees, or by posts, or placed upon trestles, if necessary, supported in the middle by posts. Over this tree are placed sticks, with a slight inclination to the mountain side, somewhat in the shape of a corduroy bridge, and fastened with wooden nails to the tree and secured by stones on the ground, if possible.

The retaining works of stone are the strongest and most lasting, and are possible everywhere, but are also the most expensive. For a foundation a space of about 3 feet is levelled, with a slight inclina

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tion into the mountain-side, as if cutting out a road; the base must be natural, not made, soil. The proper making of this foundationbase is of the highest importance. The height of the wall must be 3 feet above the ground on the upper side; the steeper the ground, therefore, the higher necessarily becomes the wall-work. Simple dry walls are all that is needed, which in addition to being cheaper, permit rain and snow-water to seep through.

Especially the ends of the walls must be well secured, and the use of cement in this part of the wall is recommended. The roof is made of large slabs, or, in their absence, of sods.

The length of walls, as of pile-rows, depends on the configuration of the soil. The distance of the walls from each other may be greater than with wood-work.

Iron rods, let into the rock and covered with wood-work, have also been used. The choice of work and its adaptation to the configuration of the ground is of the greatest importance.

If the slope presents an even surface, like a roof, the pile-rows and walls are placed at intervals, so that each next following series covers the open spaces of the one before.

In ravines, the work is to be placed where the slope changes to the steeper wall. Large bowlders or rocks rising above the surface are often the incipient cause of slides. The safety-work is to be placed at their foot, so, however, that the snow sliding from such elevations would not fall upon the wall, but in front of it, to be there retained.

Springs and collections of seepage-water must be taken care of and properly conducted away.

A yearly inspection and repairs are, of course, necessary.

To make the constant maintenance of these works unnecessary and to permanently obliberate the danger, reforestation, wherever practicable, offers the only means. This it is true, may be considered under the present conditions of our civilization, too expensive a measure, although the time when forest-planting and forest-management will have to be resorted to and will prove remunerative in the United States, is not far distant.

It is, however, possible to prevent the extension of the danger from avalanches by a more rational use of the natural forest-growth. This consists in avoiding the extensive clearing of mountain-slopes, either by culling gradually and encouraging the natural reforestation by keeping fires and cattle out, or by cutting in horizontal strips of moderate width along the mountain-side, leaving strips of

timber to hold the snow and to re-seed the cleared spaces. When these have grown up to young timber, the remaining strips of old timber may be removed, leaving only a few seed-trees on the ground.

The damage done by avalanches does not confine itself to the immediate destruction of life and property within their course, but, by tearing up tracts for land-slides and dangerous torrents, which bring down débris and detritus, filling up the lower river-beds, they give rise eventually to destructive floods and endanger districts at considerable distances from the cause of the original disaster. Hence, the question of their prevention is one that concerns the community at large, and brings us to the inevitable logical conclusion, that mountain forests should always remain in the hands of the Government under a rational and conservative forest-administration.

may

RESCUE OF BURIED PEOPLE.

It be of value to those who have to battle with these mountain dangers to add a few hints in regard to the rescue and resuscitation of those buried in avalanches.

In the first place, it is well to know that persons may live as long as 100 hours; an authenticated account of such a case, at least, is found in the official report above cited. The work of rescue should therefore never be speedily abandoned.

Death usually occurs either through bodily injuries or through suffocation, mostly the latter, and this occurs the sooner the more compact the snow; therefore, there is less chance of rescue from the ground slides of wet snow-which packs like ice-than from the dry snow avalanches. The position in which the entombed comes to rest has much to do with his chance of survival. In an erect position, with less snow pressing upon head and breast, there is less danger from suffocation than when the body is in a prostrate position and more deeply buried. When, by a lucky accident, the face comes to lie near one of those hollow spaces which, by the compressed air enclosed, are often formed in avalanches, breathing is facilitated, and the buried person can sometimes save himself; for the heat of the body thaws the snow gradually, around breast and abdomen first, and more slowly around arms and legs, because these parts are more distant from the source of heat.

From these observations some rules for the conduct of those who cannot escape the slide may be inferred. They should try to pre

serve an erect position in the fall and to keep the arms near the body, so that the arms may sooner be released by thawing and become useful in the rescue.

When the slide comes to rest, the entombed at first feels a pressure; this is soon relieved, after a few seconds, by the partial freezing of the snow masses and a consequent contraction away from the body.

The entombed hear and understand any noise or voice above them, but their own voice cannot be heard above; this, probably, because the sound-waves cannot sufficiently develop in strength in the surrounding snow.

Rescuing parties should first look over the snow, where the slide has come to rest, for signs of the unfortunate victims. If no parts of the body are visible outside, determine, according to the location and the track which the slide took, the place where most probably the entombed lie. Then let the rescuers take position in line, and with the handles of shovels, or with poles, push into the snow every foot or so, progressing forward as they do so. If a human body is touched the elasticity will be noted; also, the poles pushed down around the body will sink deeper, for the entombed usually do not lie on the ground, but are imbedded in the snow.

In all cases the first duty of the rescuers, when they discover the body in the snow, is to provide means for breathing, by opening up a channel to the mouth.

If the rescued is apparently dead, respiration must first be restored. This is done by placing the body on the belly, supporting the head lightly, pressing evenly and slowly with flat hands upon the sides of the breast, rolling the body over on the side and a little further, and back on its belly, repeating the pressure on the sides; this movement should be repeated sixteen to twenty times per minute.

Another mode is to place the body into sitting posture, supporting the head, grasping from behind the two forearms in the middle, and moving them forward and upward until they touch both sides of the head, then move them down and press with them against the sides of the breast, repeating the process sixteen to twenty times a minute. This treatment should be continued for twenty to thirty minutes, if necessary, while rubbing the patient vigorously with flannel or woollen cloth in the direction from feet and hands towards the body.

Besides absence of respiration, cold and hunger may add to the causes of asphyxia. But even in such cases respiration is first of all

to be restored. The warming should be only gradual, never in a warm room or with heated bottles, but always by rubbing.

When the body. becomes warm the danger in nose, ears, hands and feet of a surplus of blood, or of impeded blood circulation, is avoided by cold compresses, by rubbing with snow, and elevating the affected parts.

As soon as respiration is restored, small doses of coffee, tea or brandy should be given.

When it is considered that in the winter of 1887, in Colorado alone, two hundred lives were reported lost in avalanches, it becomes plain, on humanitarian grounds, even if there were no considerations of economy and profit, that the prevention of such calamities is a public duty. The obvious remedy in the rational use and administration of the mountain-forests is entirely practicable. The neglect of it is sure to involve the necessity of costlier remedies hereafter.

THE TREATMENT OF FINE GOLD IN THE SANDS OF SNAKE RIVER, IDAHO,

BY T. EGLESTON, PH.D., NEW YORK CITY.

(Ottawa Meeting, October, 1889.)

THE sands of Snake River, Idaho, have long been known to contain gold. They were worked by some of the first prospectors who came to Idaho, and on the banks still stand the ruins of camps abandoned for years. There are almost always prospectors searching for gold during the season of low water, and it is not an infrequent thing to find a miner of the old type actually panning the sand, or the prospect-hole which he has just left. There is more or less mystery about these miners and their methods of finding the spots where they work. They are always subjects of much speculation to the ordinary traveller. The rich discoveries are, for the best of reasons, concealed until the claims can be taken up. It is difficult to find a place where there are no prospects, but the "colors" are so very fine that they do not offer much inducement to enterprise. The California miner usually values a color at from 5 to 10 cents, often the latter; while on Snake River it would take 100 colors, or even more, to make that amount.