The whole of the Altai range is comprehended, and constitutes an important portion.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.-The surface within the mountain ranges presents an extensive level plain, traversed by numerous large rivers with a general course to the Arctic Ocean, and therefore with an inclination towards the north The aspect and nature of the surface varies; towards the north it is dreary and usually frozen; more to the south there are extensive districts of rich dark soil, and in the vicinity of the rivers are fine alluvial tracts. Small lakes and marshy patches abound, with their peculiar vegetation, and saline substances are occasionally largely mixed with the soil. The highest parts of the Altai range do not attain any considerable height.

CLIMATE.-Siberia is not so bleak aud inhospitable as has been generally represented, though, compared with similar parallels in Europe, or even in Amerca, it must still be called inclement. Over much the soil is frozen even to June, but where the inhabitants can be drawn from the chase of the fur animals to the less exciting pursuits of agriculture, large and profitable crops of the northern cerealia are produced. The variety and beauty, with the occasional richness of the vegetation, is an unquestionable proof that the climate is not always severe.

FLORA.-The clothing of vegetation which invests the surface, varies in different situations. In some are thick forests, in others extensive marshes; large tracts are sometimes covered with saline plants, or lastly, a luxuriant and pleasing vegetation prevails. The forest chiefly follows the direction of the rivers, and the pine prevails. Among the herbaceous vegetation, perennials are by far the most abundant, and though numerous species are identical with European, a great many are peculiar, and some still new to science. Nowhere, perhaps, do herbaceous

plants so truly luxuriate as in these latitudes, where they are in unrestricted possession of the rich soil. Their short existence through the summer months is compensated by a vigorous growth and obtrusive beauty. The predominating families are ranunculaceæ, cruciferæ, umbelliferæ, leguminosa, saxifrageæ, and caryophylleæ. As the seasons advance, labiatæ, scrophularineæ, and boragineæ, contribute important members; whilst liliacea and irideæ are conspicuous among the spring vegetation. The individuality of the flora depends almost entirely on species, for the genera are extremely similar to those of Europe, and though the features of the vegetation are different, a catalogue would appear to show a close resembance. A few may be mentioned as to some extent distinctive, and which have usually several species; astragalus, hedysarum, caragana, pedicularis, pœonia, zygophyllum, phlomis, ephedra, and robinia. Ceratocarpus arenaria and diotis ceratoides are represented as covering large tracts; whilst the saline plants belong chiefly to polycnemum, atriplex, chenopodium, frankenia, tamarix, nitraria, and salicornia.

Pallas and Ledebour are almost our only authorities for Siberian vegetation. The latter has examined somewhat closely the flora of the Altai Mountains between 47° and 54° north latitude, and 73° and 87° east longitude. The influence of aspect was found to be important in favour of the south; from various observations, the limit of perpetual snow seems as high as 7,350 feet; in some places corn grew at 4,400 feet, and here also was the limit of habitations. At 4,900 feet the vegetation most resembles that of Europe. The highest limit of trees is 7,200 feet; pinus cembra, with a south aspect, attains 7,200 feet, and with a north aspect, 5,800 feet. Betula alba reaches 5,850 feet, and pinus siberica and abies communis grow together to the height of 5,800 feet, where they both cease. Ledebour mentions two

peculiarities in the vegetation; the nearly total absence of hard-wooded trees, such as those furnished by quercus, fagus, acer, tilia, carpinus, aud fraxinus; and that many of the families which have numerons species are represented by few genera; thus, saussurea, serratula, and artemisia in compositæ, zygophyllum in rutacea, and astragalus, oxytropis, and phaca in leguminosa monopolize the far greater part of the species in their respective families.

occurs in the climate and

RELATIONS. When we reflect how much the continuity of the land has diffused the animal and vegetable productions of the northern part of Europe, Asia, and America, the Siberia Region must be allowed to have retained its entireness with great success. At the southern limits of the Altai range such a change physical characters as to be incompatible with a vegetation like that of Siberia. Towards Bering's Straits, though the interval is small, the difference between the two coasts is as marked as can be expected between neighbouring regions. Kamtschatka has received no important accessions from America, though the flora of the latter is represented in rhododendron, robinia, erigeron, claytonia, and trillium. This distinction is less evident on its west side, where the plants of Europe and Siberia intermingle. Through rheum and pœonia it claims an alliance with the more southern floral regions of Asia.

XXXVI. THE JAPAN REGION.

EXTENT.-Balbi, in his Geographie, has indicated a Sinico-Japanese Region, but the lofty volcanic mountains, insular position, and rough climate of Japan, would seem to point to a peculiar vegetation, and one with predominating alpine features. The foundation of this region con

sists of Niphon and Jesso, with the other islands known collectively as Japan. It also includes the long island of Saghalien, and a portion of the main of peculiar aspect and nearly covered with forest, situated between 55° north latitude and the river Hoang-ho in China. The peninsula of Correa is thus embraced, and the northern part of China, in which is situated the capital Peking, but a tract of country of great aridity and barrenness.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.-The aspect of the Japanese Islands is bold and rugged, and the mountains are elevated far above the line of perpetual snow. The connental portion, except to the south, is traversed by mountain chains.

tremes.

CLIMATE.-Severe for the latitude and prone to exAt Nangasaki, in 32° 45 north latitude, observations give the mean temperature as 68°, and the range in the year from upwards of a hundred degrees to below the freezing point.

Its

FLORA.—It is but indifferently known; the mass of the vegetation is temperate, but singularly mixed with tropical forms. Raphis flabelliformis and cycas revoluta mingle with species of acer, quercus, thuja, pinus, and juniperus. Thunberg collected near Naugasaki 755 phænogamous plants, which certainly bespeaks a flora rich in forms. bizarre character will be visible in pinus, abies, larix, tilia, salix, citrus, bumbusa, ficus, olea, mespilus, cydonia, prunus, salisburia, podocarpus, clerodendron, nerium, laurus, diospyros, paullinia, vitex, melia, broussonetia, camellia, illicium, and hydrangea. Like the China Region, the vegetation in connexion with the climate well deserves attentive study.

RELATIONS.-In many respects they are close with China, and also abundant with Siberia through pinus cembra, the birch, the larch, and the willow, &c. The

affinities with the North American Regions are much stronger than happen in the China Region, through sambucus, æsculus, pavia, magnolia, vitis, bignonia, juglans, and rhododendron.

XXXVII. THE CHINA REGION.

EXTENT.-A large portion of the east of Asia, comprising the vast empire of China, Correa, Japan, and the islands bordering the coast, presents a remarkable vegetation, influenced by some peculiarities of climate, and having many interesting relations with other and sometimes distant regions, from all which its isolation is complete. I regard it as conveniently divided into two regions; the China Region, and the Japan Region; the former entertaining copious relations with India, and the latter with Siberia. The China Region, the object of our present attention, does not embrace the whole of that empire, but that portion of it situated between the Hoang-ho, or great river, and the Gulf of Tonquin. Its western boundary is within a line stretching from the Gulf of Tonquin to the Himma-leh Mountains, and, continuing along the chain which separates Thibet from China, ceases at the Tartary Region. To the east it is bounded by the Pacific Ocean, but includes the islands of Formosa Loo-Choo, and Hainan.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.-No country in the world presents such a forbidding aspect as China. The land on the southern shores is generally bold, and seems to be so swept by the periodical winds that vegetation will not thrive. A little fern and coarse grass alone resist them, with occasionally a few stunted bushes. In other places the shores are low, and flooded by the sea. Where, however, there are