sections of sterculiaceæ, moringeæ, elæocarpeæ, salicariæ, myrtaceæ, combretaceæ, santalaceæ, olacineæ, leguminosa, urticeæ, artocarpeæ, euphorbiaceae, celastrineæ, rhamneæ, sapindaceæ, vites, meliaceæ, cedreleæ, aurantiaceæ, connaraceæ, amyrideæ, burseraceæ, anacardiaceæ, ochnaceæ, balsamineæ, bignoniaceæ, piperaceæ, cucurbitaceæ, cinchonaceae, loranthaceæ, loganiaceæ, asclepiadeæ, myrsineæ, cyrtandraceæ, begoniaceæ, cycadeæ, commelineæ, scitamineæ, smilaceæ, pandaneæ, and aroideæ. - (Greville.) Many of these families, however, are more copiously represented elsewhere, and some are but rarely seen. The families strictly confined to India are few, as memecyleæ, alangieæ, aquilarineæ, stilagineæ, and some of these even may be disputed.

Ceylon is estimated to contain 24,660 square miles, and its highest point attains 8,280 feet. The climate varies much in temperature and fall of rain in different parts. At Colombo the annual range is from 76° to 87°, and the fall of rain from 75 to 80 inches. The vegetation is similar to the continental, and the elevation of surface is friendly to the existence of a somewhat altered vegetation, mixed with a few genera of temperate latitudes.

RELATIONS.-There is so much similarity in the controlling influences within the tropics of the different continents, that we are not surprised to find them approaching each other in the general characters of their vegetation. This is not only visible in the more bulky tropical families, as combretaceæ, melastomaceæ, piperaceæ, cinchonaceæ, and celastrineæ; but in the inconsiderable groups of pedalineæ, olacineæ, ochnaceæ, samydeæ, hippocrateaceæ, and homalineæ. In some instances, where the relations are less intimate, a compensation seems attempted, as in the presence of cyrtandracea for the gesnerea of intertropical America. Whilst America presents some affinities with

New Holland, they are rarer in Asia, a circumstance perhaps due to geographical position. Several genera are shared with the China Region, the most remarkable being nepenthes. Cyrtandra is numerously represented in the Sandwich Islands.

XLI. THE HIMMA-LEH REGION.

EXTENT. This is probably the most interesting alpine region in the world, as some allowances are necessary for the charm with which Humboldt has invested the Andes. The novelty of his researches ensured an early and lasting impression on the minds of scientific men, and the wide reputation which ensued has so overshadowed the subject elsewhere, that all other mountain chains have been reduced to almost a secondary importance. The names of a few Englishmen have recently become associated with the examination of the natural features and productions of the Himma-leh Mountains, and the obscurity in which they were long buried has been considerably removed. This gigantic mass of mountains traverses a great portion of Asia from east to west in a somewhat devious line between 250 20′ and 31° N. lat., and 75° and 95° E. long. In accordance with our views of the extent of an alpine flora, this region commences at the spot where the lowland cultivation ceases, and which, in different aspects and situations, varies, to an important extent, between 3,200 and 4,400 feet. Above this are the four permanent belts of an alpine flora. Von Buch is disposed to think there is room for another region towards the limit of vegetation, but I do not deem it advisable to distinguish further in the alpine regions.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.-The Himma-leh Mountains

are not a solitary chain, but are composed of many heaped against each other, of varied outline and elevation, and containing within them numerous defiles, valleys, plains, and every other disposition of surface liable to occur, and materially influencing the climate and vegetable produc tions. In many of these situations is collected a rich soil and all the appliances of great fertility. Their geological structure presents numerous rocks; approaching the chain from the south, sandstone first appears, distinctly stratified and containing strata of lignite; to these succeed various kinds of slaty rocks, imbedding quartz, limestone, and hornblende; lastly, gneiss appears in vast quantities, traversed by veins of granite, and imbedding garnets, schorl, hyacinth, and native gold. Animal remains occur in considerable quantities in some places, consisting of marine shells, fish, and the bones of animals. The breadth of the region varies between 250 and 350 miles, but the extent of surface geographically furnishes no correct estimate of the real superficies. The snow-line fluctuates according to the circumstances of the locality, but may be generally stated at from 14,000 to 16,000 feet, and is always higher on the northern flanks. Among the loftiest peaks are Javaher, attaining 25,800 feet; Dhawalagiri, 28,500 feet; and Chu mularee, 29,000 feet; but vegetation has ceased long before.

-

CLIMATE. Whilst the region possesses the evenness of temperature, brilliancy of atmosphere, and other attendants of alpine situations, the climate is greatly affected by aspect, and the mean heat, range, and distribution of moisture differ on its northern and southern flanks.

FLORA. Nature has enriched this magnificent range of mountains with a varied and abundant vegetation. It is singular, that some of the genera that do not usually produce trees, have species here which attain a considerable

bulk, as juniperus, salix, ligustrum, rubus, and rhododendron. Though the range of its alpine regions varies considerably with aspect, the very brief notice we must here take of them will be found generally correct.

1. The Region of Lowland Cultivation extends to 3,200 or 4,400 feet. This correctly does not belong to the Himmaleh Region, but to that embracing the plains of Hindostan. Tropical productions prevail, as scitamineæ, epiphytic orchidaceæ, numerous tropical forest trees, the sugar-cane, pine-apple, mango, banana, and bamboo.

2. The Region of Woods extends to 11,000 feet. The vegetation is dense and luxuriant; the more conspicuous genera are laurus, quercus, pinus, ilex, magnolia, gordonia, prunus, pyrus, fraxinus, michelia, podocarpus, morus, ulmus, berberis, and populus.

3. The Region of Shrubs extends to 12 or 13,000 feet. Many of the genera of the last region enter this, but when of arborescent habit they universally become stunted and dwarf; salix, vaccinium, betula, juniperus, taxus, cupressus, stunted species of quercus and pinus, viburnum, lonicera, rhododendron, rubus, ribes, rosa, and ulex. Among herbaceous plants are potentilla, fragaria, gentiana, viola, saxifraga, salvia, dracocephalum, plectranthus, ranunculus, polyanthus, primula, antennaria, ageratum, sida, and geranium.

4. The Region of Grasses extends to 14,600 feet. It abounds in natural pasture land.

5. The Region of Cryptogamic Plants extends to the line of perpetual snow. Lichens and mosses prevail of identical genera, and also to a great extent, species, with the high latitudes of Europe.

RELATIONS. As we increase the height above the plains, the affinities with the neighbouring regions become less distinct, and others are established with distant latitudes

and other mountain ranges. They soon become very intimate with the Alps and Pyrenees, and even with the Altai and Andes. Genera common to both are represented by similar species, and sometimes one tree or shrub seems to occupy the place of another; thus, abies dumosa replaces the pinus pumila of Europe. There are a few species identical with Europe, as hedera helix, rosa canina, r. spinosissima, and salix babylonica. (Levant.) American affinities are recognized in magnolia, juglans, careya, ageratum, photinia, and osmorhiza.

XLII. THE SPAIN REGION.

EXTENT.-Spain and Portugal, with so much of the mountain chains and southern side of the Pyrenees as is devoted to the cultivation of the plains; and the islands of Minorca, Majorca, and Loiça.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. - The European peninsula is traversed in all directions by numerous mountain ranges, often of the most forbidding sterility. Nor are the features of the intervening plains frequently much improved by any important accession to the vegetation. The most promising verdure will usually be found collected in the valleys, or along the courses of rivers and streams, and in some of the most fertile lower plains. The different provinces present some variety in this respect.

CLIMATE.The summers are warm, and the winters mild. Some parts are generally dry and severe throughout the year; but the northern parts, with a milder climate, are liable to much rain and heavy weather.

FLORA. The vegetation everywhere is characterized by the evergreen oaks; the habit, mode of growth, and foliage of which are peculiar. These consist of several species,