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Under-Secretary of State, but two years later retired to Edinburgh, where he died peacefully in 1776.

Hume's History of England was the first 'really comprehensive and thoughtful treatment of historical fact', and this, combined with its lucidity of style, made it for almost a century the 'standard history of England'. As a philosopher Hume considerably influenced European thought,

though his philosophy proved essentially only that Locke's empiricism logically leads to sceptical results. His philosophical teaching, chiefly expounded in A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding (1748), An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals (1751), and in the Political Discourses (1752), led up to Kant, Adam Smith, and Bentham.

OF THE ORIGIN OF OUR IDEAS.
[From A Treatise of Human Nature, Book I, Part 1 (1739)]

All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two distinct kinds, which I shall call impressions and ideas. The difference 5 betwixt these consists in the degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike upon the mind, and make their way into our thought or consciousness. Those perceptions which 10 enter with most force and violence, we may name impressions; and under this name I comprehend all our sensations, passions, and emotions, as they make their first appearance in 15 the soul. By ideas I mean the faint images of these in thinking and reasoning; such as, for instance, are all the perceptions excited by the present discourse, excepting only those 20 which arise from the sight and touch, and excepting the immediate pleasure or uneasiness it may occasion. I believe it will not be very necessary to employ many words in 25 explaining this distinction. Every one of himself will readily perceive the difference betwixt feeling and thinking. The common degrees of these are easily distinguished, tho' it is 30 not impossible but in particular instances they may very nearly approach to each other. Thus in sleep, in a fever, in madness, or in any very violent emotions of soul, our 35 ideas may approach to our impres

sions: As on the other hand it some

times happens that our impressions
are so faint and low, that we cannot
distinguish them from our ideas. But
notwithstanding this near resemblance 40
in a few instances, they are in general
so very different, that no-one can
make a scruple to rank them under
distinct heads, and assign to each a
peculiar name to mark the difference. 45

There is another division of our perceptions, which it will be convenient to observe, and which extends itself both to our impressions and ideas. This division is into simple 50 and complex. Simple perceptions or impressions and ideas are such as admit of no distinction nor separation. The complex are the contrary to these, and may be distin- 55 guished into parts. Tho' a particular colour, taste, and smell are qualities all united together in this apple, 'tis easy to perceive they are not the same, but are at least distinguishable 60 from each other.

Having by these divisions given an order and arrangement to our objects, we may now apply ourselves to consider with the more accuracy their 65 qualities and relations. The first circumstance that strikes my eye, is the great resemblance betwixt our impressions and ideas in every other particular, except their degree of force 70 and vivacity. The one seem to be in a manner the eflexion of the other;

so that all the perceptions of the mind are double, and appear both 75 as impressions and ideas. When I shut my eyes and think of my chamber, the ideas I form are exact representations of the impressions I felt; nor is there any circumstance of the one 80 which is not to be found in the other. In running over my other perceptions, I find still the same resemblance and representation. Ideas and impressions appear always to correspond to each 85 other. This circumstance seems to me remarkable, and engages my attention for a moment.

Upon a more accurate survey I find I have been carried away too 90 far by the first appearance, and that I must make use of the distinction of perceptions into simple and complex, to limit this general decision, that all our ideas and impressions 95 are resembling. I observe that many of our complex ideas never had impressions that corresponded to them, and that many of our complex impressions never are exactly copied in 100 ideas. I can imagine to myself such

a city as the New Jerusalem, whose pavement is gold and walls are rubies, tho' I never saw any such. I have seen Paris; but shall I affirm 105 I can form such an idea of that city, as will perfectly represent all its streets and houses in their real and just proportions?

I perceive, therefore, that, tho' there 110 is in general a great resemblance betwixt our complex impressions and ideas, yet the rule is not universally true that they are exact copies of each other. We may next consider 115 how the case stands with our simple perceptions. After the most accurate examination of which I am capable, I venture to affirm that the rule here holds without any exception, 120 and that every simple idea has a simple impression which resembles

it, and every simple impression a correspondent idea. That idea of red which we form in the dark, and that impression which strikes our eyes 125 in sun-shine, differ only in degree, not in nature. That the case is the same with all our simple impressions and ideas, 'tis impossible to prove by a particular enumeration of them. 130 Every one may satisfy himself in this point by running over as many as he pleases. But if any one should deny this universal resemblance, I know no way of convincing him but 185 by desiring him to shew a simple impression that has not a correspondent idea, or a simple idea that has not a correspondent impression. If he does not answer this challenge, 140 as 'tis certain he cannot, we may from his silence and our own observation establish our conclusion.

Thus we find that all simple ideas and impressions resemble each other; 145 and as the complex are formed from them, we may affirm in general that these two species of perception are exactly correspondent. Having discover'd this relation, which requires 150 no farther examination, I am curious to find some other of their qualities. Let us consider how they stand with regard to their existence, and which of the impressions and ideas are 155 causes, and which effects.

The full examination of this question is the subject of the present treatise; and therefore we shall here content ourselves with establishing 160 one general proposition, That all our simple ideas in their first appearance are deriv'd from simple impressions which are correspondent to them, and which they exactly 165 represent.

In seeking for phænomena to prove this proposition, I find only those of two kinds; but in each kind the phænomena are obvious, numerous, 170

and conclusive. I first make myself | certain, by a new review, of what I have already asserted, that every simple impression is attended with a 176 correspondent idea, and every simple idea with a correspondent impression. From this constant conjunction of resembling perceptions I immediately conclude that there is a great con180 nexion betwixt our correspondent impressions and ideas, and that the existence of the one has a considerable influence upon that of the other. Such a constant conjunction, 185 in such an infinite number of instances, can never arise from chance; but clearly proves a dependence of the impressions on the ideas, or of the ideas on the impressions. That 190 I may know on which side this dependence lies, I consider the order of their first appearance, and find by constant experience that the simple impressions always take the preced195 ence of their correspondent ideas, but never appear in the contrary order. To give a child an idea of scarlet or orange, of sweet or bitter, I present the objects, or in other 200 words, convey to him these impressions; but proceed not so absurdly as to endeavour to produce the impressions by exciting the ideas. Our ideas upon their appearance pro205 duce not their correspondent impres

sions, nor do we perceive any colour, or feel any sensation merely upon thinking of them. On the other hand we find that any impression either of the mind or body is con- 210 stantly followed by an idea which resembles it, and is only different in the degrees of force and liveliness. The constant conjunction of our resembling perceptions is a con- 215 vincing proof that the one are the causes of the other; and this priority of the impressions is an equal proof that our impressions are the causes of our ideas, not our ideas 220 of our impressions.

To confirm this I consider another plain and convincing phænomenon; which is that, wherever by any accident the faculties which give rise 225 to any impressions, are obstructed in their operations, as when one is born blind or deaf, not only the impressions are lost, but also their correspondent ideas; so that there never 250 appear in the mind the least traces of either of them. Nor is this only true, where the organs of sensation are entirely destroy'd, but likewise where they have never been put in 235 action to produce a particular impression. We cannot form to ourselves a just idea of the taste of a pine apple without having actually tasted it.

240

CHARACTER OF ELIZABETH. [From The History of England, Chap. XLIV (1759)]

There are few great personages in history who have been more posed to the calumny of enemies and the adulation of friends than Queen Elizabeth; and yet there is scarcely any whose reputation has been more certainly determined by the unanimous consent of posterity. The unusual length of her administration

and the strong features of her cha- 10 racter were able to overcome all prejudices; and, obliging her detractors to abate much of their invectives, and her admirers somewhat of their panegyrics, have at last, in spite of 15 political factions, and, what is more, of religious animosities, produced a uniform judgment with regard to her

conduct. Her vigour, her constancy, 20 her magnanimity, her penetration, vigilance, and address are allowed to merit the highest praises, and appear not to have been surpassed by any person that ever filled 25 throne. A conduct less rigorous, less imperious, more sincere, more indulgent to her people, would have been requisite to form a perfect character. By the force of her mind, 30 she controlled all her more active and stronger qualities, and prevented them from running into excess. Her heroism was exempt from temerity, her frugality from avarice, her friend35 ship from partiality, her active temper from turbulency and a vain ambition. She guarded not herself with equal care or equal success from lesser infirmities, the rivalship of beauty, 40 the desire of admiration, the jealousy of love, and the sallies of anger.

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Her singular talents for government were founded equally on her temper and on her capacity. 45 dowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained an uncontrolled ascendant over her people; and while she merited all their esteem by her real virtues, she also engaged 50 their affections by her pretended ones. Few sovereigns of England succeeded to the throne in more difficult circumstances; and none ever conducted the government with such 55 uniform success and felicity. Though unacquainted with the practice of toleration (the true secret for managing religious factions), she preserved her people, by her superior 60 prudence, from those confusions in which theological controversy had involved all the neighbouring nations. And though her enemies were the most powerful princes in Europe, the 65 most active, the most enterprising,

the least scrupulous, she was able by her vigour to make deep im

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The wise ministers and brave warriors who flourished under her reign, share the praise of her success; but, instead of lessening the applause due to her, they make great addition to 75 it. They owed, all of them, their advancement to her choice; they were supported by her constancy; and, with all their abilities, they were never able to acquire any undue 80 ascendant over her. In her family, in her court, in her kingdom, she remained equally mistress. The force of the tender passions was great over her, but the force of her mind 85 was still superior; and the combat which her victory visibly cost her, serves only to display the firmness of her resolution and the loftiness of her ambitious sentiments.

90

The fame of this princess, though it has surmounted the prejudices both of faction and bigotry, yet lies still exposed to another prejudice, which is more durable, because more na- 95 tural, and which, according to the different views in which we survey her, is capable either of exalting beyond measure, or diminishing the lustre of her character. This pre- 100 judice is founded on the consideration of her sex. When we contemplate her as a woman, we are apt to be struck with the highest admiration of her great qualities and 105 extensive capacity; but we are also apt to require some more softness of disposition, some greater lenity of temper, some of those amiable weaknesses by which her sex is distin- 110 guished. But the true method of estimating her merit is to lay aside all these considerations, and consider her merely as a rational being placed in authority, and entrusted with the 115 government of mankind. We may

find it difficult to reconcile our fancy to her as a wife or a mistress; but her qualities as a sovereign, though

with some considerable exceptions, 120 are the object of undisputed applause and approbation.

WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1721-1793),

the son of a minister of Borthwick (Midlothian), was a clergyman by profession. But his small parish of Gladsmuir in Haddingtonshire left him ample time for extensive historical studies; and so, after six years' labour, he was able to bring out his two volumes of The History of Scotland during the Reigns of Queen Mary and of King James VI. till his Accession to the Crown of England (1759), which at

once established his fame as an historian and brought him sinecures and preferment. He was appointed one of the King's chaplains in Scotland in 1761, Principal of Edinburgh University a year later, and, in 1763, Moderator of the General Assembly as well as Historiographer-Royal for Scotland. Ten years after his History of Scotland he published his second great work, The History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V. (1769), which made his fame European.

EXECUTION OF MARY STUART.
[From The History of Scotland, Vol. II, Ch. 7 (1769)]

On Tuesday the 7th of February | particular earnestness that now in 1587, the two Earls arrived at Fotheringay, and demanded access to the Queen, read in her presence the war5 rant for execution, and required her to prepare to die next morning. Mary heard them to the end without emotion, and crossing herself in the name of the Father, and of the Son, 10 and of the Holy Ghost, "That soul,' said she, 'is not worthy the joys of Heaven, which repines because the body must endure the stroke of the executioner; and though I did not 15 expect that the Queen of England would set the first example of violating the sacred person of a sovereign prince, I willingly submit to that which Providence has decreed to be 20 my lot.' And laying her hand on a Bible, which happened to be near her, she solemnly protested that she was innocent of that conspiracy which Babington had carried on against Eli25 zabeth's life. She then mentioned the requests contained in her letter to Elizabeth, but obtained no satisfactory answer. She entreated with

her last moments her almoner might 30
be suffered to attend her, and that
she might enjoy the consolation of
those pious institutions prescribed by
her religion. Even this favour, which
is usually granted to the vilest cri- 35
minal, was absolutely denied.

Her attendants, during this conversation, were bathed in tears, and though overawed by the presence of the two Earls, with difficulty sup- 40 pressed their anguish; but no sooner did Kent and Shrewsbury withdraw, than they ran to their mistress, and burst out into the most passionate expressions of tenderness and sorrow. 45 Mary, however, not only retained perfect composure of mind, but endeavoured to moderate their excessive grief. And falling on her knees, with all her domestics round her, she 50 thanked Heaven that her sufferings were now SO near an end, and prayed that she might be enabled to endure what still remained with decency and with fortitude. The greater 55 part of the evening she employed in

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