ninth century, for the brilliancy of his talents and the depth of his crudition. He was a native of Constantinople, and originally distinguished himself by his learning and ability as a layman; but, on the expulsion of the patriarch Ignatius, by Bardas, was consecrated to the vacant see, 858. During the succeeding ten years, a controversy was carried on with much acrimony between him and the bishop of Rome, each party excommunicating and anathematizing the other; the consequence of which was the complete separation of the eastern and western churches. Bardas, his patron, being at length taken off by his nephew and associate in the empire, Michael the Third, that prince was in his turn assassinated by Basilius, the Macedonian, who then ascended the throne in 866. But Photius, denouncing him for the murder, was in the following year removed, to make way for the restoration of his old enemy Ignatius, and was forced to retire into banishment. On the death of that patriarch in 878, Photius, by a flattering exposition of a forged document respecting the genealogy of the emperor, acquired his favor, and, being restored, maintained himself in the patriarchal chair during the remainder of that reign; but was at length accused, on insufficient grounds, of conspiring against the new sovereign, Leo the Philosopher, who sent him, in 886, into confinement in an Armenian monastery, where he died in 891. This learned and intriguing prelate was the author of a Bibliotheca, containing an examination of 280 writers; the best edition is that of Bekker, a French translation from which was announced in 1831, in six volumes, octavo; of the Nomocanon, a digest of the ecclesiastical laws, acts of councils, &c., under fourteen heads; a Lexicon of the Greek Language; and numerous epistles. Of the Bibliotheca there are two other editions, that of Vienna, 1601, and that of Rouen, folio, 1653. Of the Lexicon, printed at Leipsic in 1808 (edited by Hermann), there is a more accurate copy in manuscript at Cambridge. The Letters appeared in one folio volume, in 1651.

PHOTOMETER; an instrument intended to indicate the different quantities of light, as in a cloudy or bright day, or between bodies illuminated in different degrees. In Leslie's photometer, the essential part is a glass tube, like a reversed siphon, whose two branches should be equal in height, and terminated by balls of equal diameter: one of the balls is of black enainel, and the other of common glass,

into which is put some liquid. The motion of the liquor, which is sulphuric acid, tinged red with carmine, is measured by means of a graduation; the zero is situated towards the top of the branch that is terminated by the enamelled ball. The use of this instrument is founded upon the principle that, when the light is absorbed by a body, it produces a heat proportional to the quantity of absorption. When the instrument is exposed to the solar rays, those rays that are absorbed by the dark color heat the interior air, which causes the liquor to descend, at first with rapidity, in the corresponding branch. But, as a part of the heat which had introduced itself by means of the absorption is dissipated by the radiation, and as the difference between the quantity of heat lost and that of the heat acquired goes on diminishing, there will be a point where, these two quantities having become equal, the instrument will be stationary, and the intensity of the incident light is then estimated by the number of degrees which the liquor has run over.

PHRAT. (See Euphrates.)

PHRENOLOGY (from pony, mind, and Xoyos, science); also called craniology; the doctrine first systematically exhibited by doctor Gall, of the formation and func tions of the nervous system, and particu larly of that portion of it which is enclosed in the skull, and composes what is called the brain: hence the name craniology, from Koavior, the skull, and Xoyos, science. To give another definition, "phrenology treats of the faculties of the human mind, and of the organs by means of which they manifest themselves; but it does not enable us to predict actions." The origin of this branch of physiology has been touched upon in the account of its author. (See Gall.) He published his observations in a work entitled Anatomie et Physiologie du Système nerveux en général et du Cerveau en particulier (Paris, 1801 et seq., 4to.), and illustrated them by numerous engravings in folio. The chief points of his doctrine are the following: The brain is that organ of the body by which the mind of man exerts its activity. It is, however, not active in all its parts in every act of thinking; but, as every sense, every organ of motion, and, in general, every function of the body, has a particular nerve, or set of nerves, as its instrument, so every operation of the mind essentially different from the others has a separate part of the brain for its organ, which is indispensable to it. The strength and size of the nerve are in proportion to the power of action

belonging to this organ. The nerve of the trunk of the elephant has the strength of a child's arm. Man's brain is more complex than that of any other member of the whole animal creation. It not only unites all those organs which are found singly in the brains of other animals, but has also others which are not found in them. The skulls of men exhibit great varieties, as well in the quantity of the brain as in the elevation of certain points; and observation teaches that the better sort of heads are distinguished, if not by a greater circumference of the whole skull, yet by the prominence of peculiar elevations, that is, by a greater mass of brain at those points. In youth, the period of developement, and the time of the formation of the dispositions, the whole brain has a tendency towards expansion. If the upper part of a young skull is taken off, the brain forces itself out, and cannot be pressed back into the same space by replacing the part of the skull with an old skull, precisely the contrary is observable. The functions of certain parts of the brain are different from each other, and independent of each other, and those parts of the skull which cover them are distinguished by peculiar forms. The brain is a convolution of organs. The point of union of all the nerves must be considered to be where the spinal marrow and the brain join in the neck at a spot, by pressure on which any animal possessing a brain is easily killed. Part of the nervous substance descends as spinal marrow, gives out nerves to all the organs of the body, and is distributed at last entirely into nervous ramifications. The second part ascends into the cavity of the skull, gives out branches to the cerebellum, and diffuses itself in the forms of rays, through the whole mass of the cerebrum, or rather composes it, leaving, however, in four places empty spaces (the ventricles). The variety of functions is expressed by an equally great variety in form and color. The organs of the brain are double. The whole mass of brain may be divided into two equal hemispheres, and singleness takes place only where those organs are supposed to exist, which seem to be destined to unite all the activities in a common consciousness: hence, if an organ in one part is deficient, the other part may still be active; so that the function belonging to them may still be performed; as one kidney may be wanting without a total suppression of the secretion of urine. Those organs which are found in all animals provided with a brain (such as have the most immediate

connexion with the maintenance of the vital energy), are situated towards the base of the skull; but, when the brain becomes nobler by the addition of organs of more elevated faculties, these additional organs are found towards the upper and outer parts of the skull. In a similar way, the increase of some parts of the brain shows itself by prominence beyond the others. The skull itself is in a passive state, that is, its form is determined by the surface of the brain, and does not press on the brain, if in a healthy or natural condition; for the brain exists even in the foetus, before the formation of the skull. It is then only surrounded by the hard membrane called the dura mater, which has to form and to nourish the skull. The bones of the skull consist, in adults, of two lamina, between which lies a marrowy diploe. Nevertheless, the two laminae are every where parallel with each other, except at a few points. Accurate and continued observation and comparison of men, says the phrenologist, have shown that particular elevations of the skull allow us to infer a great developement of the dispositions or faculties belonging to the organs under these protuberances, but that, where all the functions are developed harmoniously (as in Wieland's head), the skull forms no abrupt elevations, but an even arch. The observation of men in different situations, and with peculiar dispositions and faculties, and of the skulls of such individuals, anatomico-physiological investigations of the brain, and particularly comparative anatomy, with particular reference to the disposition or faculty by which particular animals are distinguished, and to the peculiar character of their skulls; pathological observations of persons suffering in the brain or the mind, as of cretins, idiots, insane persons, or persons whose brains have been injured by external violence, experiments with animals (not unfrequently cruel ones), by wounding or destroying certain parts of the brain, &c., furnish the facts on which phrenology rests. By means of such observations, Gall considered that he had found the parts of the brain belonging to several faculties and dispositions. These, as far as they can be discovered by observation of the exterior of the skull, are, of course, only such as are situated towards the surface of the brain: a number of others, situated deeper, and towards the centre, may, indeed, be conjectured at present, but can only be ascertained by continued study. Whatever may be the opinion respecting phrenology, it is certain that the observa

tions of Gall, and other phrenologists, are highly remarkable; and Gall's idea is not, as some have asserted, immoral, and founded on materialism. From times immemorial, it has been known that men are born, not only with different faculties of intellect, but also with different moral dispositions, which is true both of single individuals, and of whole nations, and the phrenologist only strives to find the organic cause of these differences, which is as innocent as to ascribe peculiar dispositions to the influence of climate. The phrenologist does not say that these dispositions cannot be overcome; but who does not know that moral efforts are much more difficult to some persons than to others? The individual organs, according to the classification and nomenclature of doctor Spurzheim's New Physiognomical System, published in 1815, are as follows, (See Spurzheim.) A faculty is admitted as primitive if it exists in one kind of animal and not in another; varies in the two sexes of the same species; is not proportionate to the other faculties of the same individual; does not manifest itself simultaneously with the other faculties (appears and disappears earlier or later in life than other faculties); may act, or rest singly; may singly preserve its proper state of health or disease. The organs are divided into those of the propensities, the sentiments, and the intellect. Of the propensities, nine are enumerated: 1. amativeness, situated in the cerebellum, and indicated, during life, by the thickness of the neck at the occipital bone. With new-born children, the cerebellum is the least developed of all the cerebral parts, and is to the brain as 1 : 13, 15 or 20, and in adults, as 1 : 6, 7 or 8. 2. Philoprogenitiveness, situated immediately above the middle part of the cerebellum, and corresponding to the protuberance of the occiput. It produces the instinctive love of offspring, and, in general, love of children, and is with females larger than with men. 3. Concentrativeness, immediately above the last, and below self-esteem. It was first called, by Spurzheim, inhabitativeness, as it was found in persons and animals much attached to one place; but now it is believed that its function is to maintain two or more powers in simultaneous and combined activity. This organ is stated by Combe as probable.* 4. Adhesiveness, on each side of concentrativeness, just above the lambdoidal suture. It produces an instinctive tendency to attach one's self to

* The organs not mentioned as probable are considered as established.

certain objects, animate and inanimate. 5. Combativeness, at the inferior and mastoid angle of the parietal bone. It produces courage, and propensity to attack. 6. Destructiveness, immediately above, and extending a little backwards and forwards from the external opening of the ear, and corresponding to the squamous plate of the temporal bone. 7. Constructiveness, at that part of the frontal bone immediately above the spheno-temporal suture. 8. Acquisitiveness, at the anterior inferior angle of the parietal bone (Spurzheim first called it coveliveness). It produces the tendency to acquire, or the desire to possess in general. The great idea of property is founded on it. 9. Secretiveness, at the inferior edge of the parietal bones, immediately above destructiveness, or in the middle of the lateral portion of the brain. This faculty produces instinctive tendency to conceal spontaneous thoughts, emotions, &c., from outward expression, until the understanding shall have decided on their propriety. The nine organs of sentiments are enumerated thus: a. sentiments common to man and the lower animals: 10. Self-esteem, at the vertex, or top of the head, a little above the posterior or sagittal angle of the parietal bones. If modified by other organs, it is the source of great good. The lower animals, such as the turkey-cock, peacock, horse, &c., manifest feelings resembling pride or selfesteem. 11. Love of approbation, on each side of that of self-esteem, and commencing about half an inch from the lambdoidal suture. 12. Cautiousness, near the middle of each parietal bone, where the ossification of the bone generally commences. 13. Benevolence, at the upper part of the frontal bone, in the coronal aspect, and immediately before the fontanel. b. Sentiments proper to man. 14. Veneration, at the middle of the coronal aspect of the brain, at the bregma or fontanel of anatomists. 15. Hope, on each side of that veneration, and extending under part of the frontal and part of the parietal bones. 16. Ideality, nearly along the lower edge of the temporal ridge of the frontal bone, producing delight in the beau ideal. Wonder, immediately above ideality. The function of this part of the brain was not ascertained when the other organs were numbered, and it therefore was left unmarked in the busts and plates. It produces the tendency to believe in presentiments, phantoms, &c.; probable. 17. Conscientiousness, on the posterior and lateral parts of the coronal surface of the brain, upwards from cautiousness, and

temptations proved unsuccessful, and she declared that he was not a man, but a statue. Even in her old age, she was not without admirers, as it was esteemed an honor for any one to be able to boast that he had enjoyed her favors. PHRYXUS. and Helle.)

(See Argonauts, Athamas,

PHTHA. (See Hieroglyphics, p. 318.) PHTHIOTIS. (See Thessaly.) PHTHISIS.(See Pulmonary Consumption.) PHYSICAL ASTRONOMY. (See Astronomy.) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, or the NATURAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH, is that branch of geography which treats of the surface of the earth, of the atmosphere which surrounds it, of the substances which compose it, and of the organized bodies which it produces or supports. (See Geography.) Physical geography does not, however, enter into the minute details of natural science; it gives a general view of phenomena and their mutual relations, and leaves to the more rigorous sciences the classification of the substances of which they treat, borrowing from each its results, and connecting them into one whole. The figure of the earth and its relations to the other parts of the universe are determined by mathematical geography; physical geography points out its natural divisions into land and water, continents, seas, oceans, &c., and treats of the external configuration of mountains, valleys, coasts, &c. (See Earth, and the separate articles.) Having examined the surface, we attempt to penetrate the interior, and determine the structure and composition of the solid parts of the earth, its strata, caverns, veins, &c., the rocks or aggregate substances of which it is formed, their distribution, properties, age, &c. (see Geology); we study the remains of its past inhabitants, and the proofs of the violent revolutions which it has undergone (see Organic Remains); and seek for the causes of those revolutions. (See Earthquake, Volcano.) We next examine the simple substances of which the earth is composed (see Mineralogy), and their various combinations (see Metals, Earths, Salts), from which we obtain so many contributions to our comfort, health or luxury. If we then turn to the fluid parts of the globe, hydrography points out its divisions into lakes, rivers, seas, oceans (see the articles), determines the different natural qualities of water, its temperature, chemical properties, &c. (see Mineral Waters), and the nature, extent and causes of those great fluctuations, which it regularly or irregularly undergoes. (See Tides, Cur

rents.) The fluid which surrounds the globe may next be examined (see Meteorology), its composition determined, and the curious phenomena of which it is the theatre, and the movements to which it is subject, be studied. (See Atmosphere, Rain, Hail, Snow, Magnet, Electricity, Winds, &c.) After concluding our examination of inorganic nature, by researches into the local temperature of the atmosphere (see Climate, Temperature, Zones), we may next consider the earth as the residence of organized living beings, which adorn its surface, and feed upon its inexhaustible resources. Vegetables, from the abundance with which they are produced, and from their intimate connexion with the surface of the globe, first attract attention; botany examines, in detail, the treasures of the vegetable world, while physical geography marks its general relations and traces the influence of climate, temperature, soil, atmosphere, &c., upon the progress and extent of vegetation, and the geographical distribution of plants. (See Plants.) Rising above the lowest form of organic to animal life, we search the air, the land and the sea, following the motions of insects, reptiles, birds, fish and beasts, and fix the boundaries within which they are confined, or the spot of their origin and the progress of their migrations. (See Animals, Zoology, &c.) Man, in his physical capacity, his animal organization, his variety of complexion, stature, conformation and mode of life, the proportions of the ages, sexes, deaths and births, with the influence of heat and cold, moisture and drought, local habitation and climate, upon his body and mind, is the last and highest subject of physical geography. (See Man, Longevity, Physiology, &c.) Considered as a moral, social, political and religious being, man in organized societies is the subject of political geography. It is not to be denied that physical geography is yet in its infancy. But an inconsiderable part of the surface of the globe has yet been examined; the seas still conceal their treasures from us, and the bosom of the earth has been but partially and superficially opened to us.—See Bergmann s Physical Geography (Swedish, 2 vols., 8vo.), the geographical works of Humboldt, Malte-Brun's System of Geography (vol..i).

PHYSICS. (See Natural Philosophy.) PHYSIOCRATIC or AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM, in political economy. Francis Quesnoy, physician to Louis XV, had observed the very depressed state of agriculture in France, whilst travelling with the king