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the essential principle in all the operations of the mind, the distinction between sensation and perception which Locke had made being rejected, and man being regarded only as an animal of a somewhat finer organization than the others, but moved only by sensual impulses (as in the system of Helvetius), the consequence was, that the material world was considered as the only form of existence, mind as only a connexion of atoms, the basis of its actions egotism, and the end of these actions a refined sensuality; thence the belief in moral freedom, virtue, God, providence and immortality, was looked upon as a folly unworthy of a reflecting mind, and a complete materialism became predominant. We have said that Condillac's system continues to predominate in France; still, however, several distinguished philosophers follow another path, and we are far from asserting that the consequences which we have ascribed to the system still exist in their full extent. It may be safely said, that there prevails in France, at present, a deep-felt want of the belief in a God, which not being able to find satisfaction in the dogmas of the Catholic church, the religion of the overwhelming majority is in an unsettled state. Of this want, even the propagation of the extravagant doctrines of the St. Simonians, which would be otherwise inconceivable, is a strong proof. But there are still more persons in France whose minds are unillumined by a belief in immortality, than in any other civilized nation. The acute understanding and inexhaustible wit of Voltaire, the clear intellect of D'Alembert, at the head of the Encyclopædists, spread through society the dangerous doctrines just mentioned. Rousseau's enthusiasm stands alone in the French literature of that time. The revolution, which produced so great a change in the character of the French, and made them more acquainted with foreign nations than their national pride had allowed, especially with the Germans, had also considerable influence upon their philosophy. The want of a deeper, more earnest philosophy, is apparent even in Rousseau's works; still more in those of St. Pierre, Châteaubriand, Claude St. Martin, and the marquis Bonald; also Prosper de Barante, in his work on the literature of France in the eighteenth century, was actuated by this idea; and De Gerando, Villers, and the baroness de Staël-Holstein, from the same feeling, have directed attention to German philosophy. Among those who have at

tempted to give philosophy a better character, Laromiguière is distinguished. His Leçons de Philosophie, ou Essai sur les Facultés de l'Ame (2d ed., Paris, 1820, 2 vols.), is valuable. He opposes the doctrine of Condillac, as to the first and sole principle. He stands nearer to Locke than to Condillac. Count Destutt de Tracy has become well known by his Idéologie (3d edit., Paris, 1817). Locke and Condillac are his idols. He extends somewhat the principle of Condillac, and considers sensations as predicable not only of the objects of the external world, but also of those of the inner. Ch. Vict. de Bonstetten's Etudes de l'Homme (Geneva, 1821, 2 vols.) is a valuable work, written in the spirit of the higher psychology, but more in the shape of sketches and hints than of a methodical system. Bonstetten strives particularly to defend the emotions of the heart, the feelings, against the coldness of logicians, who derive all the operations of the mind from ideas only. We must mention also Degerando, whose Hist. comparée des Systèmes de la Philosophie (Paris, 1804, 3 vols.) lately appeared in a new edition. Victor Cousin has opened a new path. He approaches the German philosophy. (See his article.) His introductory Cours de Philosophie has lately been very well translated into English by Mr. Linberg (Boston, 1832, 1 vol.). We ought to mention, also, the works of St. Simon, as among the modern works which have attracted most attention. (See St. Simon.) We shall conclude our remarks with a passage of the article Philosophie, from the Encyclopédie Moderne : "France cannot be said, at present, to have any system of intellectual philosophy properly its own. Fluctuating between the spiritualism of Germany, which rejects empiricism, and the views of the Scotch school, which admits the authority of experience, it adopts some views from each, whence results a sort of eclecticism, favorable at least to investigation, even if it is not, in all its parts, conformable to truth."

For the Italian philosophers of the middle ages, see Italy, division Italian Literature. There is no school of modern Italian philosophy. For a complete history of philosophy, we refer to Tennemann's History of Philosophy (in German; Leipsic, 1798–1810, 18 vols., in large octavo), of which a synopsis has been also published, and a translation of the latter, by Vict. Cousin (Paris, 1829, 2 vols., 8vo.); also to Ritter's History of Philosophy (in German), not yet finished.

PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista, one of the most distinguished musicians, whose proper name was Giambattista Jesi, was born at Pergola (hence his name, Pergolesi), in the March, according to some in 1707, according to others in 1704. In 1717, he entered the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo at Naples, then under the direction of Gaetano Grecco. This great master initiated his pupil in all the secrets of the art. At the age of fourteen years, Pergolesi had distinguished himself by various compositions, in which melody was sacrificed to artifices of counterpoint; but no sooner had he left the Conservatorio, and studied the vocal compositions of Vinci and Hasse, than he changed his manner entirely. In his first opera, however, only some ariette were well received; but prince Stigliano judged favorably of Pergolesi's talents, and procured him employment (1730-34) at the Teatro nuovo. During this time, he also composed La serva Padrona, for the theatre San-Bartolomeo. But his genius was not satisfied with ordinary subjects: he seized an opportunity to make himself known at Rome by a more important composition, and wrote, in 1735, his Olimpiade, for the theatre Tordinone. Yet this opera, though of great merit, did not please much. Pergolesi now returned to Naples, and composed his Dixit and Laudate, the success of which afforded a compensation for the former coldness of the public. His health declined, and his friends induced him to go to Torre del Greco, at the foot of mount Vesuvius, which is considered salutary for pulmonary patients. Here he composed his far-famed Stabat Mater dolorosa, his cantate Orfeo, and the Salve, Regina, his last work. He died in 1739, at Puzzuoli, when his fame had Just begun to spread over Europe. The theatres and the churches resounded with

his productions. In Rome, his Olimpiade was represented anew, with the greatest magnificence, and its beauties were enthusiastically applauded. According to the universal opinion of the Italians, no one ever excelled him in musical expression. Some call him the Dominichino, others even the Raphael, of music; but he is censured for repetitions, an abrupt style, and transpositions which injure the text. Pergolesi inclines more to the soft than to the powerful; even his Stabat, according to the judgment of modern musicians, is somewhat weak. His manner is tinged with melancholy, originating, perhaps, from his feeble state of health.

PORTO RICO, or PUERTO RICO, an island belonging to Spain, one of the Great Antilles (of which group it is the smallest and most easterly), lies between lat. 17° 50 and 18° 32′ N., and between lon. 65° 43′ and 67° 10 W., having the Atlantic on the north and the Caribbean sea on the south. It is separated from Hayti, on the west, by a channel twenty-five leagues broad. One hundred and ten miles in length, by thirty-six in breadth. Population, 400,000, of which 40,000 are slaves. Until 1815, Porto Rico was an expense to Spain; but since that time foreigners have been allowed to settle there; and it is now in a very flourishing condition. It has a fine climate, a fertile soil, and produces coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, fruits. The exports of the year 1830 were estimated at $2,500,000; imports at $2,000,000. The sugar crop of 1831 was estimated at 45,000 hogsheads, that of coffee at 125,000 quintals. Porto Rico, which was called by the natives (Arrowauks) Boriqua, was dis covered by Columbus in 1493, and is said to have contained at that time 600,000 inhabitants, who were soon exterminated by the Spaniards.