tions of "rationing," for Norway is in vital need of certain commodities, especially foodstuffs, cotton, and coal. See Neutral Exports; Neutral Imports; Neutral Rationing.

"Notwendigkeit." A German word, meaning "necessity." When the German Gen. von Emmich entered Belgium he issued a proclamation stating that German troops were compelled to cross the frontier, but explained, "They are constrained to do so by sheer necessity, the neutrality of Belgium having already been violated by French officers who have been through Belgian territory in a motor car, on their way into Germany." A member of the German supplementary general staff, Gen. von FreytagLorringhoven, a high authority on military problems, has since admitted that the French did not violate the neutrality of Belgium, and not only had no intention of doing so, but did not anticipate such a step on the part of Germany. When the German Chancellor admitted to the Reichstag, in his famous speech of August 4, that Germany had done a wrong to Belgium and had committed a breach of international law," he justified it on the ground that "necessity knows no law." When the PanGermans urge the retention of Belgium and other annexations east and west, it is on the ground of "necessity." "That which appears to the French to be the brutal harshness of the conqueror was really nothing but national necessity to the Germans," wrote the former Chancellor von Bülow, in justifying the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and in urging further annexations at the cost of France. German junker necessity" knows no right, no law, no mercy, no limit except that imposed by a superior force. See "Frightfulness"; German War Code; Kriegs-Raison."

66

66

66

O.

Officers' Reserve Corps. A corps of the Regular Army established by the national defense act of 1916, in answer to obvious needs and suggested by European example. It is for the purpose, as stated in the law, "of securing a reserve of officers available for service as temporary officers in the Regular Army, as officers of the Quartermaster Corps and other staff corps and departments, as officers for recruit rendezvous and depots, and as officers of volunteers." These reserves, covering every branch of the service, are made subject to duty only in time of war. The number admitted to the corps may not exceed the number of officers of corresponding grades in the Regular Army, with the exception that an unlimited number may be appointed to the lowest authorized grade for use by promotion at need. Officers' Training Camps. Announcement was made two weeks after the declaration of war of the institution of 16 camps in various parts of the country for the training of officers for the new Army. These camps opened on May 15, 1917, with about 40,000 men enrolled. After the first camps had closed, in August, some 20,000 men were enrolled in the 9 camps of the second series. A third series of camps will open in January, 1918. During their three months of instruction men in the camps have been paid at the rate of

$100 per month. In establishing and managing these camps machinery was utilized which had been created in connection with preparedness camps operated at Plattsburg, N. Y., and elsewhere in 1915 and 1916. By order of the Secretary of War, November 8, the minimum age for admission to such camps was reduced from 21 years to 20 years and 9 months. The camps of the first series were located at Plattsburg Barracks, N. Y.; Fort Myer, Va.; Fort Oglethorpe, Ga.; Fort McPherson, Ga.; Fort Benjamin Harrison, Ind.; Fort Logan H. Roots, Ark.; Fort Riley, Kans.; Leon Springs, Tex.; Presidio of San Francisco, Cal.; Madison Barracks, N. Y.; Fort Niagara, N. Y.; Fort Sheridan, Ill.; Fort Snelling, Minn. Camps of the second series were located at the first nine of these posts. At Plattsburg Barracks, Fort Benjamin Harrison, and Fort Sheridan double camps of the first series were situated. See Plattsburg.

Official Bulletin. A daily periodical issued since May 10, 1917, by the Committee on Public Information, containing news of the Government activities in order "to assure the full and legal printing of the official announcements of Government heads in connection with Government business." It is sent free to newspapers and postmasters and sold to others at $5 a year. Okuma, Count Shigenobu (1838- ). Japanese statesman, founder and leader of the Progressive party, who was Prime Minister at the outbreak of the war. He caused Japan to fulfill the obligation of the British alliance, and later, after the fall of Kiaochow, presented to China a series of demands which the latter found unacceptable. After considerable negotiation a compromise was reached which gave dissatisfaction in Japan, and in October, 1916, Count Okuma resigned in favor of Count Terauchi. Count Okuma does not belong to one of the great clans; he has always given great attention to the internal development of Japan, and Waseda University is his own creation. He has also written much and edited Fifty Years of New Japan.

"Open-Door" Policy. The name given to the American policy in China and the Orient by John Hay, as Secretary of State, after the Boxer uprising of 1900. His view, to which all of the powers concerned in China finally adhered, was that no exclusive privilege should be sought or acquired by any single nation, but that whatever was granted to one must be allowed to all other powers upon similar terms. American commercial treaties had long been based upon this principle through the well-known "most-favored-nation' clause. See "Hun"; Japanese-American Agreement; Kiaochow.

Order in Council. A decree issued, in form, by the King of England in his privy council, but in fact by the British cabinet, regulating matters which are left by law to the discretion of the Government. It resembles closely an Executive order in the United States. By such an Order in Council the embargo upon trade with Germany was declared on March 15, 1915, in reply to the German war-zone order of February 4, 1915. The United

States protested against this order on March 30, 1915. See Embargo, British; "Zamora."

Ordnance Department. The most of what is not supplied to the Army by the Quartermaster's Department comes to it through the Ordnance Department. These are the two main channels through which is received what is necessary for the prosecution of a war. The Quartermaster General subsists and attends to the material wants of the soldier; the Chief of Ordnance furnishes him with the powder and ball, the guns and military equipment he fights with, and puts at his hand what he needs in prosecuting the business for which he is sustained. Arsenals, armories, munition factories, when these are taken over for Government use, fall under the administration of the Ordnance Department. This bureau contracts for the manufacture of arms, large and small, horse equipment, gun mounts, etc., and in time of war exercises powers of great magnitude.

Orlando, Vittorio (1860- ). Premier of Italy; born at Palermo, became professor of administrative law in the University of Rome, then a deputy, then Minister of Public Instruction in Giolitti's cabinet, and later Minister of the Interior. He became Prime Minister on October 30, 1917.

Ostend. Formerly one of the favorite watering places of Europe and also a Belgian port of entry. Its population before the war was 43,000. In October, 1914, it was captured and partially destroyed by the Germans, and it has since been many times bombarded by the air forces of the Allies. It is said to be one of the main stations for Germany's submarine fleet, and would become an important strategic post should Germany be able to hold Belgium. See Antwerp; Pan-Germanism.

Overseas Trusts. In the early part of the war corporations were formed in neutral countries to take from the Governments the task of guaranteeing that imports consigned to their countries would not be reimported into the territory of the Central Powers and thus pass through the blockade. The Netherlands Overseas Trust was formed for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and in April, 1915, Great Britain and France agreed that all conditional contraband and some absolute contraband could pass through the blockade zone if consigned to the Netherlands Government or the Netherlands Overseas Trust. In Switzerland a like function is performed by the Societé Suisse de Surveillance Economique (known as the S. S. S.). During the period of our neutrality the project was brought forward of an American Overseas Corporation for like purpose. The American Government refused to approve it, the State Department declaring that it could not sanction any organization which received preferential treatment over other American shippers. See Netherlands, Neutral Problems; Neutral Exports; Neutral Rationing.

P.

Pacifism. In the broader sense, is nearly synonymous with internationalism, and signifies a movement for the abolition of war. In the narrower sense it means a protest against any

war which may be waged, regardless of its causes, purposes, or probable consequences. "Gentlemen who are out and out pacifists are making one fundamental mistake. . . America does not constitute the world." (President Wilson, Des Moines, Feb. 15, 1916.) "I want peace, but I know how to get it and they do not." (Buffalo, Nov. 12, 1917. See Peace with Honor.

Pact of London. On September 5, 1914, the following treaty was signed in London: "The British, French, and Russian Governments mutually engage not to conclude peace separately during the present war. The three Governments agree that when terms of peace come to be discussed, no one of the Allies will demand terms of peace without the previous agreement of each of the other Allies." This treaty was adhered to by Japan on October 30, 1915, and by Italy on December 2, 1915. If Russia makes a separate peace with the Central Powers it will be in flat violation of this agreement. See Bolsheviki; Russian Revolution.

Painlevé, Paul (1863- ). Ex-Premier of France; mathematician, professor at the Sorbonne, a brilliant chemist, a learned physicist, an excellent speaker, and leader in political life. In politics he is a Republican-Socialist, i. e.. a moderate. At the opening of the war he urged the appointment of a superior commission on inventions to continue the work of the commission on inventions of the war department, most of whose officials had taken the field. He himself is reported to have invented the gas used against the Germans at Verdun. He was taken into the cabinet as Minister of Public Instruction, October 31, 1915; was appointed to the new office of Minister of Inventions in January, 1916; Minister of War, 1917, where one of his chief acts was the appointment of Petain to the chief command. On the fall. of the Ribot ministry in September, 1917, he was called to constitute a ministry from all parties (except the Unified Socialists) for the sole purpose of prosecuting the war; this lasted, however, only for a few weeks, falling in November, 1917.

Palestine. A province of the Turkish Empire, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, where a British invasion began in the spring of 1917. The fall of Erzerum had ended the plan for a Turkish invasion of Egypt through this region in 1916. British forces from Egypt began operations in Syria as a part of their near eastern campaign. They advanced to within 50 miles of Jerusalem on March 28, 1917. The Russian collapse halted for a time all operations in this theater; but in November, 1917, further progress was announced, including the taking of Ascalon and Jaffa. Jerusalem was surrendered to the British on December 9. See Bagdad; Suez Canal.

Panama. A republic occupying the Isthmus of Panama; formerly a State of Colombia. Its area is 33,776 square miles, and its population is approximately 375,000. The President is R. M. Valdez. Panama declared war upon Germany April 7, 1917, in these words: "Our indisputable duty in this tremendous hour of history is of a common ally, whose interests and existence

as well are linked indissolubly with the United States. As the situation creates dangers for our country, it is the duty of the Panaman people to cooperate with all the energies and resources they can command for the protection of the canal and to safeguard the national territory." War on Austria was declared December 10, 1917. See Brazil; Cuba; Guatemala; Pan-Ameri

canism.

Panama Canal.

The Clayton-Bulwer treaty, between the United States and Great Britain, in 1850, provided for an isthmian canal to be constructed by a private corporation under international control. But in 1880, stirred by the prospect of a speedy construction of a canal at Panama by the De Lesseps Co., President Hayes announced the doctrine that any canal between the two oceans must be under American control. Pursuant of this idea, Secretary Hay negotiated with England, in 1901, the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, which abrogated the Clayton-Bulwer treaty and recognized the exclusive right of the United States to construct and manage a canal, and placed the canal "politically as well as commercially under the absolute control of the United States." The canal was opened to commerce, informally, August 15, 1914. It is to-day heavily fortified. See Suez Canal.

Panama Canal During War. On November 13, 1914, the President issued a proclamation prescribing rules "for the use of the Panama Canal by belligerent vessels." The proclamation was based upon the responsibility of the United States as a neutral exercising "sovereignty in the land and waters of the Canal Zone." The regulations laid down conform closely to the spirit and letter of the Thirteenth Hague Convention, and limited strictly the amount of supplies and fuel a belligerent war vessel might take on within the Canal Zone, and also the length of time they might remain there.. Rule 14 forbade the use of the radio installation of any belligerent vessel, public or private, within the zone, except in connection with canal business. Rule 15 forbade the aircraft of a belligerent power, public or private," to descend or arise within the jurisdiction of the United States at the Canal Zone, or to pass through the air spaces above the lands and waters within said jurisdiction." By an executive order dated August 27, 1917, defensive sea areas were established adjacent to the terminal ports of the Canal, and regulations were laid down for the government of persons and vessels within such areas.

Panama Canal Tolls. Article III of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of 1901 provided: "The canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and war of all nations observing these rules on terms of entire equality, so that there shall be no discrimination against any such nations, or its citizens or subjects, in respect of the conditions or charges of traffic or otherwise. Such conditions and charges of traffic shall be just and equitable." The canal act of August 24, 1912, contained a clause exempting American coastwise vessels using the canal from the payment of tolls. On March 5, 1914, the President, urging that "the large thing to do is the only thing we can afford to do," asked “a voluntary withdrawal from a position everywhere