part of the Russians in East Prussia were made by the Germans. The truth of the stories told of German atrocities in France was attested by a French official report, issued in the spring of 1915. On May 12, 1915, a British commission headed by Lord Bryce published a report on Belgian atrocities, which convinced those hitherto incredulous that the stories of German cruelty were correct. Studies made by Prof. Reiss, of the University of Lausanne, in October and November, 1914, and issued in a later report, show that the Austrian armies in Serbia were guilty of the same atrocities which characterized German behavior in Belgium. Another Bryce report gives accurate details of the massacres of Armenians at the hands of the Turks, until July, 1916. See Family Rights and Honor; " Frightfulness"; German War Practices; War, German Ruthlessness.

Australia. A federal commonwealth, of six States, lying in the south Pacific. Area, 2,974,581 square miles. Population, 4,951,073 (1915). The capital is at present Sydney, in New South Wales, but a new federal city is under construction. Australia is a self-governing dominion of the British Crown, and like Canada promptly threw in its lot with the mother country. Australian troops won undying fame at Gallipoli and in France, and Australian naval forces captured several German colonies in the Pacific. In spite of much agitation, Australia has not adopted conscription. See Price Fixing in Australia.

Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary is a dual monarchy comprising the Austrian Empire, which includes the ancient kingdom of Bohemia, the Hungarian kingdom, and the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its area is 261,241 square miles, supporting, in 1916, a population of 52,500,000. The capital of Austria is Vienna, that of Hungary Budapest. The EmperorKing is assisted in his direction of the common affairs of the two monarchies by three ministries (Foreign Affairs, Finance, and War) and an Imperial Court of Audit. The joint ministries are subject to "interpellation by and are somewhat responsible to the "Delegations," which are elected by the respective parliaments of Austria and Hungary. These delegations sit separately, though they perform identical functions. They convene alternately in the two capitals; and in case of disagreement hold a joint session, in which, without debate, the question is determined by a vote. The present ruler, who was the Archduke Charles Francis Joseph, succeeded Francis Joseph I on November 22, 1916, as Charles I of Austria and IV of Hungary. The constitutional arrangements of Austria are so contrived as to permit the Germans, who are greatly in the minority, to dominate the Czechs, Poles, Ruthenes, Slovenes, and Dalmatians, who are all Slavs, and the Italians as well; while in Hungary the Croatians, Slovaks, and Roumanians, as well as the Magyar lower classes, are at the mercy of the Magyar aristocracy. AustriaHungary declared war on Serbia July 28, 1914; on Russia, August 6, 1914; on Montenegro, August 9, 1914; and on Belgium, August 28, 1914. See Francis Joseph; Magyarization; Slavs.

In his

Austria-Hungary, President Recommends War. annual message, December 4, 1917, President Wilson said: "One very embarrassing obstacle that stands in our way is that we are at war with Germany, but not with her allies. I therefore very earnestly recommend that the Congress immediately declare the United States in a state of war with AustriaHungary. Does it seem strange to you that this should be the conclusion of the argument I have just addressed to you? It is not. It is in fact the inevitable logic of what I have said. Austria-Hungary is for the time being not her own mistress, but simply the vassal of the German Government. We must face the facts as they are and act upon them without sentiment in this stern business. The Government of Austria-Hungary is not acting upon its own initiative or in response to the wishes and feelings of its own peoples, but as the instrument of another nation. We must meet its force with our own and regard the Central Powers as but one. The war can be successfully conducted in no other way. The same logic would lead also to a declaration of war against Turkey and Bulgaria. They also are the tools of Germany. But they are mere tools and do not yet stand in the direct path of our necessary action. We shall go wherever the necessities of this war carry us, but it seems to me that we should go only where immediate and practical considerations lead us and not heed any others." (See War, Declaration against Austria-Hungary.)

Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia. matum.

See Serbia, Austrian Ulti

Austria and Serbia, 1913. It was suspected by many that the Austrian note of 1914 was the result of a long-contemplated policy of aggression in the Balkan peninsula. Bosnia and Herzegovina had been annexed in 1908 and now Serbia was to follow. This suspicion was changed to certainty by the disclosure with which Signor Giolitti, formerly prime minister of Italy, startled the Chamber of Deputies in December, 1914. As early as August 9, 1913, Austria communicated to Germany and Italy her intention of acting against Serbia, and asked for the cooperation of her partners in the Triple Alliance. Italy replied that as the alliance was purely defensive and the action contemplated was plainly aggressive, she could not give the policy her support. She further expressed the hope that Germany would dissuade Austria from so dangerous a venture. See Serbia, Austrian Ultimatum; Triple Alliance.

Autocracy. Autocracy is a government by a supreme ruler accountable to no earthly power. It is of the essence of this form of government that the lives, liberties, and, indeed, all interests of "common" men should be at the virtual disposal of another will without opportunity of effective appeal. The monarch enjoys a monopoly of rights-he is above the law. On the other hand, the people enjoy but a single right-the right to obey. Accordingly, from the democratic standpoint, there is little difference between autocracy and usurpation-usurpation of the rights inherent in human nature. Speaking at Königs

berg in 1910, William II said: " Looking upon myself as the instrument of the Lord, regardless of the views and the opinions of the hour, I go on my way." At another time he used the following words: "There is but one master in this country; it is I, and I will tolerate no other." He has also been very fond of quoting the old Roman adage, making it read: "The will of the king is the highest law." See Kaiserism; William II.

Autonomy. Self-government for local matters, attended by subordination in foreign relations. The idea, which is well illustrated by the position of Australia and Canada, the great self-governing Commonwealths of the British Empire, may prove to be useful in finally defining the position of such countries as Poland, in relation to Russia, and of Bohemia, in relation to Austria-Hungary.

Aviation. A vast new arm of military service which has undergone a most remarkable development during the present war. The combined British and French air squadrons, it was recently stated, have been increased since the war began from 1,700 to more than 20,000 machines, with a personnel of 200,000 men. England did not possess more than 200 qualified aviators at the outbreak of hostilities. Aircraft in use include airplanes, the German Zeppelins, other dirigibles, and the observation kite balloons. The Allies at the beginning were surprised to see sausage-shaped bags anchored behind the German lines at altitudes reaching up to 5,000 feet. These were in position to report upon troop movements of the enemy and to guide the artillery. But the main line of development has been in the manufacture and use of airplanes. These are monoplanes, biplanes, and triplanes. They are of various types, sizes, and makes, designed for all kinds of uses. Principally they are for reconnoissance, for direction of artillery fire, for scouting and chasing, and for bombardment. The reconnoissance machines often carry cameras, and from them detailed photographs of ground to be attacked are made and returned to headquarters. They afterwards direct the fire of the guns. The scout plane precedes and feels the way for other planes. The chaser is to pursue the enemy and to protect aerial movements. The planes for bombardment of enemy positions or troop masses carry bombs. All war planes are armed, the principal reliance being upon machine guns, with which to wound and precipitate enemy machines to the earth. Airplanes carry from 1 to 12 men, and will doubtless soon exceed this. Some of the chasers are built to fly at the rate of 150 miles an hour. One has recently risen to a height of 15,000 feet in seven and one-half minutes. In any recent battle on the west front, as at Messines Ridge, there have been first, near the earth, a squadron of fighting planes, armed with guns for attacking troops in the trenches, transports, etc.; at a height of 3,000 to 5,000 feet a division of machines for dropping bombs into the enemy lines; and above, at a height of 15,000 or 20,000 feet, fast one-man machines for engaging planes sent out by the enemy to attack the bombers from overhead. The aircraft organization of an army is not improp

erly called its "winged cavalry." Without airplanes artillery under present systems of warfare is practically helpless. See Liberty Motor.

B.

Backward Nations. The term applied to nations requiring foreign capital for their economic development, but unable to guarantee full protection to such capital when it is invested within their limits, with the result that they become the prey of creditor States. Instances of such "backward nations" are Morocco and Turkey. The modern tendency in the case of these nations is to open them to the capital of all nations on an equal footing and to make such tutelage as may be necessary international, rather than that of single nations. The first of these two policies is indicated by the so-called "open-door policy" of the United States by which it was laid down that trade opportunity should be open to the capital of all nations without discrimination. The second policy was attempted by the conference of Algeciras, in 1906, but owing to lack of support at the time proved a failure. See Morocco; Turkey.

Bagdad. Bagdad controls much of the trade of Mesopotamia and Arabia, and is the strategic center for the region between Constantinople and the Persian Gulf. It is the terminus of a railroad from Constantinople projected before the war and hurried to completion since 1914. It was the objective of the Russian and British campaign of 1915-16 which was temporarily abandoned after the fall of Kut-el-Amara in April, 1916. In January, 1917, the British began a new advance up the Tigris. On March 11 Gen. Maude entered Bagdad. The continuation of the advance from the city caused a Turkish retreat into Mesopotamia, whither they were pursued by the Russians from Persia. A junction of the British and Russian forces on April 4 was followed by a British drive up the Bagdad Railway to Samara, and the British occupation of the Euphrates Valley. Operations in this theater were retarded by the Russian revolution. See Constantinople; Kut-el-Amara; Mesopotamia.

Bagdad Railway. See "Berlin to Bagdad"; Turkey. Balance of Power. The theory that no State or group of States must be allowed to become so strong as to menace the liberties of other States. In accordance with this principle, which is expressive of the mutual rivalries and fears of dynasties, the States of Europe were wont, especially in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, to range themselves in two opposing alliances, one headed by Austria, the other by France. At its best, as in the wars against Louis XIV, the principle safeguarded the independence of the smaller States, but in the days of its deterioration it sometimes, as in the case of the partition of Poland, led to their destruction. Certainly, to-day its usefulness is outgrown. A diplomacy which accepted the democratic principle that governments rest upon the consent of the governed would leave no room for dynastic and imperialistic rivalries, but would appeal to the belief that the underlying

interests of the great mass of men are friendly and cooperative. Such a diplomacy, the feasibility of which is proved by the historic policy of the United States toward the other nations of the Western Hemisphere, could unite the world in what the President has called "a community of power" to defend the general peace and promote the common civilization. See Aims of United States; America, Creed of; Monroe Doctrine; Pan-Americanism; Permanent Peace, American Plan; War Aims of the United States.

Balfour, Arthur James (1848- ). British statesman, at present Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. He entered Parliament in 1874, held several cabinet positions, and became head of the Conservative party and Premier in July, 1902. He resigned in December, 1905, just before a crushing defeat of his party at the hands of the Liberals in the elections of January, 1906. His leadership of the party in opposition was disliked, and he later resigned this leadership to Mr. Bonar Law. When the coalition cabinet was formed in May, 1915, Mr. Balfour became head of the admiralty, and in December, 1916, relinquished this for the post of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, succeeding Viscount Grey of Fallodon. In this capacity he headed the British mission to the United States in the spring of 1917. See Missions to the United States.

Balkan Problem. This is the general title around which are collected a number of special problems arising in or having reference to the Balkan States. These are: (1) problems of nationality, such as the Bulgarian claim to Macedonia and the Roumanian claim to Transylvania; (2) economic problems such as Serbia's desire for an outlet to the sea and the Austrian desire to dominate the Vardar valley and the road to Saloniki; (3) the European problem of the changes in the balance of power as affected by the shifts in the Balkans and the attendant strengthening of the influence of Russia on one hand or of the Central Powers on the other. See "Mittel-Europa"; Pan-Germanism; Pan-Slavism.

Balkan Wars. Fought in 1912-13. By showing the strength of Bulgaria and the other Balkan States, they aroused the fears of Austria and the cupidity of Germany. The first, involving Turkey on one side and Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro on the other, grew out of Turkish misrule in Macedonia, a territory inhabited by Greeks, Bulgars, and Serbs. In six weeks the Turks were driven back to within 25 miles of Constantinople; an armistice was promptly concluded, and a treaty of peace was signed in London on May 30, 1913. By that instrument, which was concluded under pressure of the powers, Turkey lost most of her European possessions. Unfortunately the victors quarreled among themselves. On June 29, 1913, Bulgaria treacherously attacked her Serbian and Greek allies in the hope of securing possession of Macedonia. She was not successful, and when Roumania attacked her in the rear, she was forced to sign the treaty of Bucharest, August 10, which awarded her only a small strip along the Aegean