dromeda. Of course it is true to nature; but when compared with drawings made at the telescope, it exhibits scarcely a recognizable feature. The center of the nebula, which is very much elongated, is surrounded with two rings somewhat resembling those of Saturn; and we now know the nature and cause of the dark channels running through it first noticed by Bond. These are the dark spaces between the rings, visible

the stars in its vicinity marred the main feature of the nebula proper.

Orion Nebula.-The photographic extent of this nebula far exceeds that of any other in the heavens, and much interest attaches to it therefrom. In the fine photograph of it made by Mr. Common, of England, it appears in many respects as visually seen with the telescope. As his design was to photograph the nebula and not

its vicinage, the exposure was limited. The photograph of this nebula by Prof. W. H. Pickering at Wilson's Peak, which includes the surrounding regions, reveals streams of nebulous matter astonishing in extent. He says ("Sidereal Messenger," January, 1890): "We have recently considerably extended the nebulosity about Theta by giving longer expos ures and using a quicker lens. The connection with c is now well marked, while the long nebulous streak extending southward from Zeta is broadened and joins e upon the other side, connecting the sword-handle with the belt. This extension is of much greater area than the other two nebulæ combined. Its northern portion as far as 3° 30' south declension is fairly conspicuous, and makes an excellent test object, not of the instrument or the steadiness, but of the clearness of the air and the blackness of the sky. Owing to recent advances in stellar photography, this matter of sky illumination has assumed considerable importance, and it is very doubtful if any of the fainter nebulous extensions here described can be photographed at any observatory located in or near a large city. This is due, undoubtedly in part to the gas, but chiefly to the electric lights which illuminate the slight atmospheric haze and aqueous vapor. A large spiral nebula, which starts from between Omega and Psi, is seen on the plate, passing four degrees north of Zeta, extending to Beta, thence north to Eta, with an outside stream lying nearly north and south, and preceding Beta about four degrees. Another stream, lying nearly east and west, precedes Eta about the same amount. This nebula is about 15° in length by nearly the same breadth, and surrounds a cluster of bright stars,

including the belt and sword-handle. This immense nebula is shown by three different exposures, and is very distinctly marked." This extraordinary photograph was made with a portrait lens of 26 inches aperture and 8.6 inches focus, with an exposure of three hours.

Bright Lines in Stellar Spectra.-As a rule, the stars give spectra crossed by dark lines, the same that our sun exhibits, but there are a few exceptions. As spectroscopic investigation is extended the number giving bright lines will no doubt be largely increased. Following are a few notable examples, mostly variables: Gamma Cassiopeia, R Andromeda, Beta Lyræ, 17 Cygni, Eta Argus, R Hydra, Chi Cygni, Theta Muscæ, Phi Persei and Delta, and Mu Centauri. At the Dun Echt Observatory, Scotland, 70 bright lines were seen in the spectrum of 71 Cygni and 237 in that of Beta Lyræ. The planetary nebulæ show by their spectra that they are closely allied to stars with bright lines.

Draper Memorial Fund.-The fourth annual report of the photographic study of stellar spectra at Harvard College Observatory, by the aid of the Henry Draper Memorial fund, deals with subjects of absorbing interest to astronomers. An expedition, directed by Messrs. S. J. and M. H. Bailey, erected the Bache telescope on a mountain 6,500 feet high in Peru, South America. The weather, for the first six months, was satisfactory, and about 1,300 photographs were obtained of different portions of the sky south of 25° of south declination, using exposures of ten minutes. Two sets of plates were taken, the center in one coinciding with the corners of the other, thus causing every star to appear on at least two plates. Excellent views were obtained of the more remarkable southern objects, as the nebula surrounding Eta Argus, the_trifid nebula, the cluster Omega Centauri, x Doradus, and Kappa Crucis. At the beginning of the rainy season the site was abandoned, the work to be located elsewhere. Mrs. Draper has provided another telescope for Harvard College, replacing that sent to Peru, for the photographing of objects whose stellar spectra are too faint to be studied with other instruments, particularly those of the fourth type, although the stars are red. The number of photographs taken by the Bache telescope is 4,595; with the Draper 11-inch, 2,510; with the Draper 8-inch, 713; and with the 15-inch, 65; making a total of 7,883.

Variable Stars. These bodies, as a rule, give peculiar spectra, and occasionally one is found whose variability has not been previously known, but which yields a spectrum belonging to one of the four types into which they are classified. A recent examination of one of the Harvard College negatives led to the discovery that the Durchmusterung star + 48°2942 gives a spectrum of bright lines resembling Omicron Ceti and other long-period variables. Nova Orionis, discovered in 1885 by Mr. Gore, now known as U. Orionis, yields a bright-line spectrum, and is a variable of long period, changing in 1734 days from 5 to 124 magnitude. Its place is right ascension 5h 48m 17, declination north, 20° 9' 18". On March 26, 1890, Rev. T. E. Espin observed bright lines in both Theta 1 and 2 Orionis. Great importance is attached to

these observations by astronomers, for they indisputably prove that some of the so-called stars are not stars at all, but nebulæ greatly condensed, which in future æons will arrive at the state of ordinary stars or suns, when the lines in their spectra will turn from bright to dark. Mr. Espin publishes in "Astronomische Nachrichten," No. 2,963, a list of forty-three stars like those mentioned above. It is a continuation of former lists, and begins with the tabular number 387. The variable star discovered in 1888 by Prof. Paul, of the Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C., proves to be the shortest-period variable yet discovered. It varies from 6 to 73 magnitude, going through all its changes, according to Mr. Chandler, in the astonishingly short time of 3h 20m. The star's place for 18750 is right ascension 9h 26m 50s, declination - 28° 47', and it is known as 12 Antliæ.

Astro-Spectro Photography.- One of the most unexpected and wonderful disclosures of the spectroscope and photography is the periodic doubling of the lines in the spectra of Zeta Ursa Majoris, Beta Auriga, b Ophiuchi, and Alpha Virginis. In plates taken at Harvard College Observatory on March 29, May 17, and Aug. 27 and 28, 1889, the K line in Zeta Ursæ (Mizar, or the second from the end of the handle of the Great Dipper) is clearly seen double. Sometimes the line would appear distinctly double, then unmistakably single, and, again, as a hazy line. A close scrutiny of all the plates showed that the line is double at intervals of fiftytwo days, beginning March 27, 1887, and that for several days before and after these periods it is hazy. This line of the star, being of less width than the hydrogen lines, is better adapted for the detection of duplicity. Through common telescopes this star is an interesting double, but the inference from this periodical duplication is that it is triplex, the nearest component being so close as to require for its discovery telescopic magnification far beyond that which the capacity of the most powerful glass will furnish, or the atmosphere allow. The brothers Pickering are of opinion that each component is equal to the other in mass and intrinsic brightness, and that the period of revolution is about one hundred and four days. If the latter assumption is true, the distance between their centers can not be greatly more nor greatly less than that of the planet Mercury from the sun. The distance between the components of Beta Auriga appears much less, as it completes a revolution in four days, the line being doubled every two days, corresponding to a distance between their centers of only 8,000,000 miles, and an orbital velocity of 150 miles a second. So enormous are their motions," says Prof. Pickering, "that the change in the spectrum is sometimes perceptible on successive plates, and is very marked in the course of an evening."

Each star, say of Beta Auriga, gives a certain number of lines, one being the K line, but if the star be not in motion in the line of sight this K line of each component star will be so close as to be inseparable spectro-photographically, though it might appear hazy; but if the plane of their orbits be coincident, or nearly so, with our line of sight, and, while revolving round the center of gravity of the system, one shall be

moving toward and the other from us, the K line in the spectrum of the former will be displaced toward the violet, and in the latter in the direction of the red, thus causing the line on the plate to be seen double. Of course, in part of their orbital revolutions (at their conjunctions) the two stars will be moving laterally and the line will appear single, but at elongations when moving toward or from us will be seen double. It is this which causes the periodical doubling of the lines, and proves that, though telescopically single, the star is spectrophotographically double.

It has long been known that the waves of light at the violet end of the spectrum are more numerous and shorter, and more refrangible, than those at the red end. It follows, therefore, that if a luminous body is approaching us more waves will be crowded into a given space, and they will be shorter than if it is at rest, and all the lines in its spectrum will be slightly moved toward the violet; while, on the contrary, if it be moving from us, the waves will be longer and fewer, and the lines will be displaced toward the red. An ingenious application of this principle to determine the period of the sun's rotation, has been often and successfully tried, confirmatory of the assumed correctness of the period assigned by observation of his spots. The two poles of the sun, by virtue of the sun's rotation, have no motion whatever toward or from the earth, and therefore the lines in the polar spectra ought not to show any displacement, and do not. If the spectroscope be pointed to the east limb of the sun which is approaching us, all the lines (save, of course, the air lines) will be displaced toward the violet end of the spectrum. If it be turned toward the west limb, which by rotation is moving from the earth, all the solar lines from that region will show displacement toward the red.

Prof. James E. Keeler, of the Lick Observatory, has determined the rate of motion of several planetary nebulæ in our line of sight. The brightest nebular line, the origin of which is unknown, was used for comparison. Of the ten examined, two are approaching the earth, 17-2 and 310, and two receding 16-8 and 38-4 miles a second respectively. These deductions are considered by astronomers of great importance. His paper is published in No. 11 of the publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Orbit of Algol.-Astronomers have long entertained the opinion that the variation in the brightness of Algol is due to periodic transits of a dark companion across, or partly across, the face of the bright star as seen from the earth. Prof. Vogel, of the Potsdam Observatory, Prussia, acting on the suggestion of Prof. Pickering, who thought its orbit might be determined by photo-spectroscopic observation, made six photographs of the spectrum of Algol, three before minimum periods and three after, there being an interval of several months between them. The three taken before minimum show the lines decidedly displaced toward the red end of the spectrum, while the others are moved in the direction of the violet. From careful measurements of the plates he makes the motion and recession of the star to be about equal, amounting to about 27 miles a second. Assuming circular orbits in a

plane parallel to our line of sight and a central transit, he derives the following elements for the system: Diameter of Algol, 1,074,100 miles; diameter of its companion, 840,000 miles; distance of centers, 3,269,000 miles; velocity of Algol per second, 27 miles; velocity of its companion per second, 56 miles; translation of Algol system toward sun per second, 25 miles; mass of Algol sun =1=3; mass of its companion sun =1=f.

་

Dark Stars.-From what has been said, the following three conclusions are deducible: (a) If a bright star give a system of lines neither double nor hazy, though showing periodic spectral displacement, it is manifest that it is a double, with one component bright and the other dark, the former producing the spectrum and the latter causing it alternately to approach and recede from the earth by the revolution of each around the center of gravity of the system, in a plane that passes through the earth or, at least. not perpendicular to the line of sight. (b) Should a star be periodically displaced and also darkened, it shows that the dark companion star transits the bright one, and it would be classed as a variable like Algol and many others of that type. (c) If a line from the spectrum of a star be periodically doubled, it follows that both components are bright and produce the same spectrum. Prof. Vogel does not regard the companion of Algol as absolutely dark, though from want of intrinsic brightness it is incapable of producing a spectrum which, were its albedo of that of Algol, it would do.

Alpha Virginis (Spica) appears as a photospectrographic variable of short period, the companion being a dark star or, at least, one too faint to form a visible spectrum. Therefore, the only inference of its duplicity is the periodic variation of brilliancy and the movement of the lines in the spectrum of the bright star only, instead of opposite separations of the lines in each star, as in the case of Zeta Ursæ, etc. The period of Spica is about four days, with an orbital velocity of 56 miles a second.

Benefactions.-Miss C. W. Bruce, of New York, who recently gave $50,000 to Harvard College Observatory for the purchase and maintenance of a photographic telescope, has given $6,000 additional for the promotion of original astronomical research, placing it in the hands of Prof. Pickering for disbursement, who is to bestow it, in sums not exceeding $500, upon such applicants, individuals or institutions, as have met certain required conditions. The late Prof. Elias Loomis bequeathed more than $300,000 in trust to Yale University, which, at the death of his two sons, will be conveyed to that institution.

Prizes and Honors.-The Janssen prize was bestowed by the French Academy upon Norman Lockyer. The Donohoe comet medal No. 1 was awarded to William R. Brooks, for the discovery of comet I 1890. The Council of the Royal Astronomical Society of England awarded no medal in 1889. The last official documents signed by Dom Pedro, ex-Emperor of Brazil, were those conferring on Admiral Mouchez and M. M. Janssen and Perrotin the grade of officer of the Order of the Rose of Brazil, and on M. M. Frassenet and the brothers Henry knighthood of the same order.

Gold from the mines of the colony, most of which are on Government land, was exported to the amount of £914,300. Grain, flour, and pulse was exported of the value of £761,795. Frozen meat, viz., mutton in whole carcases, has become an important article in the trade with England, the value of the export in 1888 being £628,800. The export of Kauri gum was valued at £380,933; of tallow, £124,950; of timber, £179,543; of hides, skins, and leather, £214,194; of butter and cheese, £197,170. From the Fiji Islands the chief export is sugar, of the value in 1888 of £270,649, besides which there is a trade in the dried kernel of the cocoanut, called copra, in bananas, and other products of the soil. The extent of the total foreign trade of the several colonies is shown in the following table:

20,685,500

Western Australia (1888)..

357,003 885,129

1,275,200

Tasmania (1888).

673,000

678,000

4,595,750

4,109,815

8,962,912

86,971,771

55,993

New Zealand (1889).. Fiji (1888)....

65,019

258,289

Commerce.-Wool is the principal export of New South Wales, the quantity exported in 1888 being returned as 235,848,944 pounds, of the value of £9,089,776. The value of the gold produced in the three years 1886-'88 was £1,051,192. The silver-lead ore raised in 1888 was valued at £1,075,737. The copper product in 1887 was £199,102 in value. The output of tin in 1888 was valued at £582,496. The product of the coal mines was 2,922,497 tons, valued at £1,346,440. The export of wool from Victoria in 1888 was 118,453,968 pounds, valued at £5,170,930, which not more than three fourths was the produce of the colony. The export of gold was £3,690,519, after which came breadstuffs, of the value of £938.008, and live stock, of the value of £406,777. The exports of manufactured articles to the other colonies are considerable. The largest exports of Queensland in 1888 were gold, of the value of £1,662,639; wool, £2,258,365; sugar,

COLONIES.

New South Wales (1888)....

Victoria (1891..

Queensland (1838)..

South Australia (1888)..

Western Australia (1888).
Tasmania (1888).

New Zealand (1889).......

of

876,978

£384,419; and tin, £230,360. Wheat, including flour, is the leading export of South Australia. The value of the wheat exported in 1888 was £1,492,145; of the flour, £663,701; of the wool, £1,610,456; of the tin, £325.227. The principal exports of Western Australia are wool, of the value of £423,762 in 1888, after which come pearls and shells, timber, and sandal wood. Tasmania exported in 1888 wool of the value of £306,930; tin, of the value of £426,326; timber and bark, of the value of £133,027; and fruit, green and preserved, of the value of £120,494. New Zealand's chief commercial product is wool, the value of the export in 1888 being £3,115,008.

thorized.

diture.

Receipts.

Expenses.

Federation. In the Australian Federal Council that assembled in Melbourne in February, 1890, all the colonies were represented, with the exception of Fiji. After a discussion that extended over several days, an address to the Queen was adopted, on the motion of one of the representatives of New Zealand, Sir John Hall, declaring that in the opinion of the conference the best interests and the present and future prosperity of the Australian colonies will be promoted by an early union under the Crown, with a single legislative and executive government, on principles just to the several colonies. A resolution to the same effect had been offered in the conference by Sir Henry Parkes. A national Australian convention was proposed, to which delegations of not more than seven members from each of the self-governing colonies and of not more than four members from each of the Crown colonies shall be sent. The conference was called at the suggestion of Sir Henry Parkes, the Premier of New South Wales, who had become the most earnest advocate of federation, although his colony had stood aloof from the Federal Council, the deliberative body that was constituted in 1883 with a view to concerted action for certain limited purposes. Nor would his Government now recognize the Council as a medium for the discussion of the details of the contemplated union. Mr. Gillies, of Victoria, and the other colonial premiers therefore proposed, and Sir Henry Parkes accepted, a compromise whereby the members of the Council in their private capacities met at Melbourne representatives sent by the Government of New South Wales. Duncan Gillies presided over the meetings, which began on Feb. 6 and closed on Feb. 13. The convention, which is to work out the details of the federal constitution, is to be held in the early part of 1891. Sir Henry Parkes was in favor of a union modeled on that of the Dominion of Canada, with a Governor-General appointed by the Crown and upper and lower houses of Parliament. A. J. Clarke, from Tasmania, thought it would be better to follow the Constitution of the United States. Some members of the Conference considered union to be imperative only for purposes of military and naval defense, while the New Zealand delegates, though approving the project of a common navy, denied the benefit to their colony of a federal army. James Service, speaking in behalf of Victoria, declared national unity to be impossible without uniform tariffs. The difficulties in the way of an early agreement, springing from intercolonial jealousies that have no connection with the practical questions of fiscal rivalry and the many divergent interests, are exemplified by the course of New South Wales in refusing to take part in the original Federal Council and in the recent proposal of Sir Henry Parkes to appropriate to his own colony the name of Australia. Still, the conference and the coming convention give evidence of a national spirit that has already gained such strength in Australia that statesmen are preparing to give it form. In the course of the summer the colonial legislatures elected the delegates who are to act for the several colonies in the Federation Convention.

New South Wales.-The Governor is Lord Carrington. The Cabinet in January, 1890, con

sisted of the following members: Premier and Colonial Secretary, Sir Henry Parkes; Colonial Treasurer, William McMillan; Attorney-General, George Bowen Simpson; Secretary for Lands, James N. Brunker; Secretary for Public Works, Bruce Smith; Minister of Public Instruction, Joseph H. Carruthers; Minister of Justice, Albert J. Gould; Postmaster-General, Daniel O'Connor; Secretary for Mines, Sydney Smith; Vice-President of the Council, William H. Suttor.

The session that opened in the beginning of December, 1889, was short, confined principally to the passing of the estimates. The revenue returns indicated the beginning of returning prosperity. The year ended with a surplus of £70,000 in the treasury. The exports of wool had amounted to £3,000,000 more than was expected, the lambing season had proved one of the best ever known, and the wheat harvest was larger than ever before, being sufficient to supply three fourths of the requirements of the colony. The Parliament met again in April. The Protectionist minority expected to defeat the Government on the question of direct taxation. Mr. McMillan, the Colonial Treasurer, was challenged to propose the removal of the remaining duties that were inconsistent with the principles of free trade, which would necessitate the raising of £500,000 a year by direct taxation. The Government did not shrink from proposing a reform of the tariff in this sense. Other parts of their programme embraced the fixing of rents and license fees for Crown lands; district selfgovernment; regulation of coal mines; protection for women and children in factories; amendment of the licensing law by the adoption of the principle of local option; extension of railroads and public works; improving the water supply in town and country; an amendment of the law relating to public health; water conservation and irrigation; uniform penny postage; amendments of the mining and criminal laws; drainage of low-lying lands; and the amendment of the electoral law by granting the franchise to both sexes, and limiting the suffrage to a single vote for each elector, instead of allowing a holder of real property to vote in each or any district where he has property. The revenue for the year ending June 30, 1890, amounted to £9,100,000, an increase of £214,000 over the receipts of the preceding year.

The recovery from depression in New South Wales and other Australian colonies was accompanied by a series of labor conflicts. Every trade has its union, and through the Trades and Labor Council of New South Wales and analogous central bodies in the other colonies the unions act together to aid each other in their strikes. The power and influence of the laborers is enhanced by the relations of a large number of them to the Government, which employs 6,000 men on the railroads and on the tramways of Sydney, who are organized in a union that is affiliated to the corresponding organizations in the other colonies. The Government is the owner likewise of many of the wharves in Sydney. In June dock laborers were forbidden by their union to load wool that had been shorn by non-union men, and in consequence the steamship was unable to proceed till the sheep-shearers had gained