TWO REPRESENTATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SOCI I. OLOGY TO POLITICAL THEORY: THE DOCTRINES OF WILLIAM FRANK WARD HARRY ELMER BARNES PART II: LESTER FRANK WARD (1841-1913) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HIS SOCIOLOGICAL SYSTEM Among all American writers there can be no doubt that Lester F. Ward has produced the most pretentious and comprehensive system of sociology. Mr. Ward was also the earliest important American sociologist. His Dynamic Sociology, which many critics consider his magnum opus, appeared in 1883, about midway between the publication of the first and last volumes of Spencer's Principles of Sociology. In addition to many articles in periodicals, Ward's sociological system was embodied in six considerable volumes.' Whatever may be the estimate of the future regarding 1 Dynamic Sociology, 2 vols., New York, 1883; The Psychic Factors of Civilization, Boston, 1893; The Outlines of Sociology, New York, 1898; Pure Sociology, New York, 1903; Applied Sociology, Boston, 1904. His Pure Sociology appeared in a reduced and clarified form in Dealy and Ward's Textbook of Sociology, New York, 1905. Ward's minor works and notices of his major contributions are brought together in his "mental autobiography," Glimpses of the Cosmos, 8 vols., New York, 1913 ff. Of these works Dynamic Sociology is the best extended exposition of his social philosophy, a briefer and clearer presentation of which is to be found in the second part of his Outlines of Sociology. Pure Sociology is the authoritative exposition of his sociological system, which again is more clearly presented in Dealy and Ward's Textbook of Sociology. His social psychology is best brought together in Psychic Factors of Civilization, while his Applied Sociology is the classic exposition of his conception of social telesis. His Pure Sociology is reviewed by H. H. Bawden in American Journal of Sociology, IX (1903-4), 408-15; is criticized in detail by A. W. Small, ibid., pp. 404-7, 56775, 703-7; and is critically analyzed by J. M. Gillette in American Journal of Sociology, XX (1914-15), 31–67. Estimates of Ward's significance for sociology by eminent sociologists appear in American Journal of Sociology, X (1904–5), 643-53; XIX (1913-14), 61-78; XXI (1915-16), 748-58, 824. the place of Ward in the history of sociology, it is certain that no other writer has approached the subject with a body of scientific knowledge which at all approximated that possessed by Ward. Herbert Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy undoubtedly displays more profound reasoning powers and a greater talent for the logical marshalling of evidence, but his scientific knowledge was not at all comparable to that possessed by Ward. Ward's formal scientific career was passed as a government expert in paleobotany, to which he made contributions only second in importance to his work in sociology.' Ward's predilection for introducing his botanical terminology into his sociology often gives the latter as strange, technical, and repulsive a tone as is to be found in the writings of the extreme "Organicists." Some of his scientific terms, however, such as "sympodial development," "synergy," "creative synthesis," "gynaecocracy," and "social telesis," are rather felicitous and have been quite generally absorbed into conventional sociological thought and expression. An extended or comprehensive exposition of Ward's sociological system within the scope of the present work is manifestly impossible. Attention will be confined to a few of his cardinal contributions. As to the subject-matter of sociology, Ward says: "My thesis is that the subject-matter of sociology is human achievement. It is not what men are but what they do. It is not the structure but the function." As nearly all of the earlier sociologists had been concerned almost wholly with an analysis of social structure, Ward's point of approach was novel and epoch-making in its significance. The divisions of sociology are two-pure and applied. Pure sociology is theoretical and seeks to establish the principles of the science. Applied sociology is practical and points out the applications of the science. Specifically, it "deals with the artificial means of accelerating the spontaneous processes of nature."3 Ward divides the body of his sociological system accordingly into 1 His academic career was limited to lectures at several university summer-school sessions and six years (1906–1913) as professor of sociology at Brown University. genesis and telesis. The former treats of the origin and spontaneous development of social structures and functions and the latter of the conscious improvement of society. In the department of social genesis, Ward's most important contributions may be summarized under the headings: sympodial development, creative synthesis, synergy, the law of parsimony, the functions and biological origin of mind, social statics and dynamics, and the classification of the social forces. The natural or genetic development of society is "sympodial." By this Ward means that type of development found in certain plants in which the trunk, after developing to a certain extent, gives off a branch or sympode, which from that point onward virtually becomes the trunk, until it is in turn displaced by another sympode. The doctrine of "creative synthesis," which Ward adopts from Wundt, he explains as denoting that "each combination is something more than the mere sum of its component factors." Every synthesis of nature is, like the chemical compound, a new creation. This is probably the most useful of the contributions of Ward's pure science to his sociology. "Synergy" is defined as "the systematic and organic working together of the antithetical forces of nature." This is one of the basic conceptions underlying the theory of the spontaneous development of society. Finally, the "law of parsimony," which is the basic law of social mechanics, is described as the tendency of natural forces to work along the line of least resistance or greatest attraction. The identity of this with Spencer's principle of motion along the line of least resistance is obvious. With his characteristic daring and confidence, Ward describes the origin of life and the biological creation of the mind. Life originated through the process of "zoism," which was a creative synthesis taking the form of the recompounding of the highest known chemical properties. The mind was also a creative product of "zoism"; it originated in the fact of "awareness"; and its irreducible element is the capacity of detecting and differentiating painful and pleasurable stimuli which come from the environment. Feeling and desire, which are of an earlier origin than 5 Ibid., pp. 115-19. 1 Pure Sociology, pp. 71–72. a Ibid., p. 79. 3 Ibid., p. 171. intellect, are the dynamic and impelling forces of mind; intellect, which is a later and higher product, is the directive faculty.' Ward considers his distinction between social statics and social dynamics and his discussion of the nature of each of these aspects of the social process to be one of his most important theoretical contributions. Social statics deals with social equilibration and the establishment of a social order-the building up of social structures.3 The development of the social order is a "struggle for structure" rather than a struggle for existence. The best structures survive. In the growth of social structures synergy is the most important principle. It is the force which creates all structures and explains all organization. Through this principle of synergy there is brought about a working together of the antithetical forces of nature in the following sequence of processes: collision, conflict, antagonism, opposition, antithesis, competition, interaction, compromise, collaboration, co-operation, and organization. Synergy, in the development of the social order, operates mainly through the process that Ward calls "social karyokinesis." This is the social analogue of fertilization in the biological field, and is manifested in the contact, amalgamation, and assimilation of different social groups. All the processes enumerated in the foregoing sequence are exemplified in this process, which ends in the production of a homogeneous nation. Ward here follows the theory of Ratzenhofer and Gumplowicz regarding the "struggle of races" as the main factor in state-building. Social dynamics deals with social progress or the changes in the structure of society. In social dynamics there are three fundamental principles-difference of potential, innovation, and conation. The difference of potential is manifested in the crossings of cultures which take place in social assimilation and amalgamation. Progress comes from a fusion of unlike elements." Innovation, which is the social analogue of the sport or mutation 1 Ibid., pp. 97, 99 ff., 124 ff., 142, 467 ff. 2 Cf. Gillette, "Critical Points in Ward's Pure Sociology," American Journal of Sociology, XX. 3 Pure Sociology, p. 184. 4 Ibid., pp. 176-84. 5 Ibid., pp. 176, 231. 6 Ibid., p. 175. This is, obviously, but an extension and elaboration of the Hegelian theory of development. 9 Ibid., pp. 231 ff., 237. in the organic world, is the product of psychic exuberance.' Conation, or social effort, is that application of social energy from which achievement results. This achievement takes the form of the satisfaction of desire, the preservation of life, and the modification of the environment.2 It Ward classifies the social forces as ontogenetic or preservative, phylogenetic or reproductive, and sociogenetic or spiritual.3 is in connection with the discussion of the phylogenetic forces that Ward develops his famous theory of "gynaecocracy," according to which he holds that the female sex was the original sex in nature, and was the most important until subordinated by the social restraints imposed upon it after man discovered his relation to the child.4 In his exposition of the principle of social telesis Ward lays down the fundamental proposition that energy must be controlled if evolution is to result. There are two possible methods of control: the unconscious control of nature manifested in genesis, and the conscious direction by mind, involved in telesis. The conscious method of control by mind is manifestly superior to the unconscious control of nature. Nature is wasteful in providing an immense mass of raw material and leaving it to be improved very slowly through natural selection. The tendency of mind is to economize through foresight and the adjustment of means to ends. This control of the dynamic forces of nature and society through the adjustment of means to ends is what Ward designates as "telesis." In this process of conscious or telic control of the social forces, the development of the state was the most important step ever taken by man or society. Nevertheless, though the state is the chief agent through which the conscious direction of the social process is and will be carried on, society cannot perfect this conscious control through any organ until there is developed Cf. Gillette, "Critical Points in Ward's Pure Sociology," American Journal of Sociology, XX, 232, 240 ff. 2 Ibid., pp. 232, 247 ff. 3 Ibid., p. 261. 4 Ibid., pp. 296 ff., 336–41, 345. s Ibid., p. 463. 'Ibid., pp. 469-71. ↑ Ibid., pp. 467 f. 8 Ibid., p. 551. |